COM257: Media History and Theory

Farley begins this weeks readings by discussing a mobile telephone as a wireless device which connects to the public switched telephone network and is offered to the general public by a common carrier of public utility.  Farley mentions that telephone history began in the 1940s after WW II, but the true advancement of mobile telephone technologies continued to develop after the war.  During this time people saw it important for civilian communication to take place and not just military communication.  Many telephone companies focused on developing landline telephone services, but mobile radio research was still taking place. America took the lead in the telephone development. 

Farley mentions that the first mobile telephones followed a radio format in which people communicated through frequencies restricted to the specific areas during the mid 1940s. There was a centrally located antenna transmitted to mobiles moving across a wide area.  The company used six different channels in the begging of this process, but over time it had to be cut down to three channels because of so much interference between the channels.  The fist cellular telephone system was first discussed in the end of 1947, but better technology was needed for things to continue.  During the year 1948 the first fully automatic radiotelephone service began, but it only reached out to a few users because there was not enough money and resources to build a high capacity mobile telephone system.  Farley continues to discuss the history and development of mobile telephone technologies.  As time progressed nations around the world were beginning to jump on the bandwagon and newer and better systems were being developed.  Eventually satellites started to come into use for transmitting signals from one phone to an operator to the other phone.  This started around the 1980s.  The hardware systems required to communicate on mobile telephones started out to be very large and required a lot of accessories and labor to work.  As time has gone on, the hardware has significantly decreased in size. 

First of all, I had no idea the mobile telephone research as been happening for so many years.  I thought that things really only started in perhaps the 1980s when people were walking around with huge briefcases which held their phones and all the additional accessories.  I had no idea that people were first working with radio frequencies to transmit messages and communicate during the 1940s. Reading this article gave me a very new understanding of the work and research that went into the development of mobile telephones.  Additionally, I find it shocking to see how long it took to develop mobile telephones.  People lived fine before cell phones were popular and widely used, yet today can not live without their cell phones.  Even I feel lost/uncomfortable when I forget my phone.  I can not believe what an impact mobile telephones have had on people and their communication techniques and interactivity.  I find it crazy to think about my parents having to call from a land line and set up meeting times when traveling etc. yet today we say "I'll call you when I am twenty minutes away so we can meet up".  I guess the development of the mobile telephone is no different than the other new media technologies discussed in class previously.  It has changed the way people interact due to the speed, accessibility, variability, and mobility functions of the device. 

Juul begins this weeks readings by stating that “Half-Real
refers to the fact that video games are two different things at the same time:
video games are real in that they consist of real rules with which players
actually interact, and in that winning or losing a game is a real event”.  So by stating this Juul is emphasizing that
playing a video game is an interaction of real rules in a functional
world.  Video games are a new technology in comparison to other things like television which came out seventy-five years ago, film which as been around for hundreds of years, as well as the printing press which has been around for about five hundred years.  The first video game, Spacewar, only came out in the year 1961 so the technology of video games is pretty new.  With this being said, Juul believes that video games are a continuation of games throughout history.  He states that "the Egyptian board game, senet, found in the 2686 BC tomb of Hesy-re is a precursor of contemporary backgammon and Parcheesi, games that are commonly played using computers today".  Juul then points out that it is important to too understand how video games borrow from non-electronic games, as well as how they depart from traditional game formats.  The current technology allows individuals to play old games in new ways, and allows for new types of games that would previously not have been possible to be played.

Juul then moves on to explain games as rules within video games.  He explains that the rules of the game must be simple and easy to understand, but the tasks of the game must be difficult for the player to overcome.  Juul emphasizes that the games take one of two basic outlines, one is emergence in which a number of simple rules combine to form interesting variations in the game; the other is progression in which separate challenges are presented serially to the player.

Next, Juul discusses the components of a game and explains its six features and they are as follows: a rule-based formal system, with variable and quantifiable outcomes, where different outcomes are assigned different values, where the player exerts effort in order to influence the outcome, the player feels emotionally attached to the outcome, and the consequences of the activity are optional and negotiable.  He states that these features are necessary for something to be a game, and that having these six features is enough to constitute a game.  Later on, Juul continues to discuss video games and elaborates on the study of video games.  He examines the history of games, and looks at factors, such as strategy building, that lead to their success. He then talks about the fun of games.  He mentions that it's difficult to determine why games are so fun because various players find different types of enjoyment for different reasons.

 I found this weeks reading to be interesting.  I have always wondered why people find games so exciting and thought provoking.  Constantly I complain to my boyfriend that he spends too much time playing video games, but after reading about the strategies and meanings and actions behind games I can understand how he can spend so much time playing.  I also find it interesting to see how quickly games developed.  They have only been around for a few decades but there are thousands of games to choose from, all offering different functions and challenges.  I find it a bit funny to see how quickly games have expanded compared to telephones when they were first introduced.  Current culture is very concerned with entertainment that video games seem like a necessity to the general public. 

O'Reilly begins this article by stating that the autumn of 2001 marked the turning point for the web transitioning from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0.  The concept of Web 2.0 began at a conference where O'Reilly and MediaLive met to discuss the webs new applications and determine if Web 2.0 was really different from anything in the past.  The article is then broken up into seven categories in which O'Reilly defines the principles of Web 2.0 and they are as follows: the web as a platform, harnessing collective intelligence, data is the next intel intelligence, end of the software release cycle, lightweight programming models, software above the level of a single device, and rich user experience.

 O'Reilly describes web as a platform can by comparing old operating systems to new ones.  An example that he uses is Netscape vs. Google.  Netscape's flagship product was the web browser, a desktop application, and their strategy was to use the dominance in the browser market to establish a market for high-priced server products.  Google on the other hand was a native web application, never sold or packaged, but delivered as a service, with customers paying, directly or indirectly, for the use of the service.  Next, O'Reilly explains harnessing collective intelligence.  He explains that the success of Web 2.0 was due to a variety of components which include hyperlinking, catalog and directory links, better search functions through PageRank, collective user activity, and more.  These functions were more efficient and more effective than previous technologies. Later, O'Reilly elaborates on data as the next Intel Inside.  This portion of the article deals with control of data.  Before there were a lot of monopolies but over time things have changed.

The end of the software release cycle was O'Reilly's next topic of discussion.  This was a huge characteristic of the internet era because software is delivered as a service instead of a product. With the new Web 2.0 operations become a core competency and users are treated as co-developers.  Additionally, lightweight programming models, O'Reilly's next topic, deals with models that allow for loosely coupled systems.  This really helps with the re-use of programs and systems.  The second to last principle of O'Reilly's is software above the level of a single device.  The Web 2.0 is no longer limited to the PC platform which helps the services provided by multiple computers and users.  Last, O'Reilly elaborates on rich user experiences.  Now users are able to build web applications as rich as local PC-based applications. 

As with all new media concepts, the transition from old to new media can be seen through the transition to Web 2.0.  People always want things to be easier, faster, cheaper, and more efficient.  I use Web 2.0 functions everyday that I take for granted.  I take advantage of the programs and what they offer.  I use programs like vista, or iTunes, and I do not think twice about how it is made or how it's working.  Before reading this, I never knew that I was such a contribution to the internet.  New technologies continuously change how we think, act and talk and the Web 2.0 is a primary example of how we think and interact differently. 

 This week's readings begin with Abbate discussing the social impacts and implications imposed by the internet concerning public communications.  Over the course of two decades internet grew encompassing more networks, more computers, and more users.  The internet was first used and controlled by military operations, but over time it became accessible to schools and then the general public.  The emergence of the internet changed the way people viewed information gathering, social interaction, entertainment, and self-expression.  The internet was very successful for a variety of reasons.  The internet was very a committed user base, and was very adaptable.  The internet modularity allowed for changes to parts of the system without disrupting the whole.   Additionally, since the internet had a decentralized authority it allowed for users to expand and improve the internet by creating new applications. 

 Abbate then goes on to describe the various internet companies and explains their differing connection options.  There were many companies such as ARPANET and NSF that funded research and hardware for internet usage, and there were companies such as Telenet and PhoneNet which offered network aces to schools.  Additionally, the internet was split into ARPANET which was used by civilians and MILNET which was used for military purposes. This division made it easier to allow civilian access to the internet because of fewer restrictions on information.  Things changed even more when personal computers were becoming a necessity and in turn the connection to the internet became a necessity as well.  Throughout the reading, Abbate explains additional changes and advancements that the internet has gone through over the past decades and elaborates on its impact on society and public communications. 

 I do not remember the first time I used the internet.  It is such a common amenity to my life that I take it for granted.  I find it hard to think about what life would be like without it since I am required to use it every single day.  I think it's a bit funny and sad that when I go on a trip I feel the need to check the computer and use the internet to see what else is going on in the world.  I have to check my email and facebook status to make sure nothing has changed or that everything is in order.  With this being said, I know I am not the only person that the internet has impacted.  It has changed the way we function in society.  For example, the business world is completely different from 30 years ago.  People would have to send mail or travel to do business conferences.  Now people fax information or send emails and even have meetings over the internet.  Education has changed as well.  People are no longer required to attend a class to receive credit for a course.  Many of the class outlines are provided on class websites, and there are even some classes which are solely taught online.  As with all other new media concepts discussed in class, the development of the internet has altered communication among society.  The Internets speed and accessibility of information, as well as the variability of information, has changed our understanding of space and place.  Communication can happen on a variety of levels at lighting fast speeds due to the use of the internet.  We are no longer restricted by our physical place to express a message, and the idea of time is almost obsolete when dealing with internet functions. 

The second part of this weeks readings began with the explanation of televisions rise.  Due to situations in the economy television had its ups and downs.  The television was a big deal during the WWII, making it a big deal but also leading to some financial problems.  It was not until the later 1940s and early 1950s that televisions were really seen in the homes in which one third of he population possessed a TV.  When this happened the film industry saw a huge decline in their cinema attendance.  It was easier for people to sit in their homes and watch TV instead of paying a dollar to do the same thing in the theater.  As things progressed, just like radio, television programs became more entertainment based with programs such as "I Love Lucy", the "Ed Sullivan Show", and "Beat the Clock".  These programs really made it big thanks to the help of the technological advance of magnetic videotape.  This allowed programs to be broadcasted at any time and in any place.  Additionally, television hit the same problems of monopolies and content that radio experienced.  It various countries differing companies had control over the broadcasting systems which limited the access that people had to the programs as well as the content that was presented.  Each country varied by what they thought most important and necessary for their public to know.

I think it's a bit funny to think about the current view of the television versus the old view of the television.  When it was first introduced it was an amazing invention because people could be entertained right from their homes.  Today however, the television is such a common household item that we consider it boring and search for entertainment elsewhere.  Where as in the past people looked forward to watching programs, people today just have the television on to have background noise and hardly pay attention to the programs.  This idea of the television can also relate back to our previous discussions about new media versus old media.  Over time the television came to replace the radio in the living room becoming the primary source of entertainment.  This idea continues to follow the theme that new media is replacing old media because people always want better, faster, and more effective ways of doing things.  I think the real message to understand from this reading is to grasp the connections between speed, accessibility, mobility, and efficiency to other communication mediums.  The TV is one of many inventions that have huge social impacts because it shapes and alters our behaviors and means of communicating.  When the TV was invented we explored its uses, and altered its content and purpose to fit our desires most effectively.  Just like Hitler used the radio for personal gain and America used it for fireside chats and entertainment purposes, various countries used television as a communication medium that was most suitable and necessary for their countries needs.  

This chapter beings with the introduction of broadcasting.  In the early 20th century radio broadcasting was a huge deal.  Having a radio publicly broadcasting across various locations had huge impacts on people's lives.  A primary example of how influential the radio was can be seen through H. G. Wells's "The War of the Worlds" broadcast in which he stated that there were Martian landings.  This showed how important radio was because this announcement sent out a wide panic to its listeners.  Briggs and Burke also express that radio broadcasting was a huge component during war time. Radios were a favored tool because it could be controlled and could keep information out of other countries.  Countries used the radio to spread propaganda and get support for the war.  Hitler was a prime example of using the radio in a monopolized fashion using the radio for his own gain.  However, the radio was used differently in the United States.  Franklin Roosevelt used the radio to connect with his fellow citizens.  Roosevelt would conduct his "fire side" chats to make his listeners feel his presence in their homes.  This was a positive and very productive use of the radio.  Also, in the United States polls were taken to rate what listeners wanted to hear.  If the rates were low the show would be take off the air.  Over time the radio began to change from a source of information and education to a source of entertainment. 

This idea of the radio can relate a lot to the telegraph from last weeks readings.  One huge component of both of these inventions is that each product created a monopoly.  This meant that a single person or group could restrict information, and as a result changed what people thought or did.  Also, the telegraph deals with the concepts of virtual mobility versus physical mobility discussed by Kellerman.  In Roosevelt's fire side chats, people could hear their leader speak in their homes.  This shows that the idea of distance is again slightly diminished because listeners only have to have a radio to hear their president; they do not need to visit him in the white house.  Information can be transmitted through a virtual medium instead of face-to-face interaction.  On a different note, it is important to see how the radio has change from then to its current use.  I think the radio is unique because it is old media and new media at the same time.  The radio still functions in the same way of an information source reaching out to as many listeners as possible, but I feel that the content of the radio has changed.  Radio began with information and education, and those elements are still in existence, but they are not as prominent.  The radio is now used as a primary form of entertainment.  There are still news shows such as NPR and big stories or weather reports are discussed on the radio but most people listen to the radio for entertainment such as music.  Also, broadcasters now provide satellite radio in which there is no news, just music and comedy shows etc. The radio has become more accessible and the content has changed slightly, but I feel it still functions in the same way. 

This weeks readings is titled Technology and Ideology: The Case of the Telegraph.  In this chapter Carey begins by describing a scene in which Henry Adams "located the precise moment when 'eighteenth-century troglodytic Boston' joined industrial America".  At this moment a telegraphic message was sent from Baltimore to Washington announcing that Henry Clay and James K. Polk were nominated for the presidency in May of 1844.  Carey then continues to express that the telegraph is one of the least studied technologies in current communications technology.  At first the telegraphy was primarily used as a toy, but later became a great advancement in communication technology.  Carey explains that the neglect of the telegraph was unfortunate for a number of reasons, the first being that "the telegraph was dominated by the first great industrial monopoly- Western Union which was the first communications empire and the prototype of the many industrial empires.  It led to the "telegraph war" as well as the rewriting of America law.  The second reason is that the telegraph was the first product of the electrical goods industry and thus the first of the science and engineering-based industries.  This innovation still has had major impacts on modern engineering dealing with the economy of a signal.  Third is that the telegraph brought about changes in the nature of language and ordinary knowledge of structures of awareness.  Now that messages and thoughts could travel by the "singing wire", reporting and knowledge took a new form by replacing the traditional literature.  Finally, the telegraph was a watershed in communication.  Carey emphasizes that the telegraph can stand "metaphorically for the innovation that ushered in the modern phase of history and determined the major lines of development of American communications."

Later on Carey discusses the impacts the telegraph had on the economy.  It affected political arrangements, management techniques, organizational structures, and scientific rationales.  Also the "invisible hand" became known between transactions because people no longer needed to meet to get things accomplished.  Additionally, the telegraph had some impacts on religion.  The telegraph used electricity. This was a great force of potency and invisibility.  It was this invisibility that "made electricity and the telegraph powerful impetuses to idealist thought both in religious and philosophical terms. It presented the mystery of the mind-body dualism and located vital energy in the realm of the mind, in the non-material world."  Finally, the telegraph impacted journalism.  Instead of having huge detailed stories, the telegraph provided for quick compact stories with just the necessary facts to cut down on costs. 

This reading relates back to the previous discussions in class.  The telegraph was at one time considered new media and is now viewed as old media.  It was a huge advancement in the world of communication, and was a stepping stone to the current communication technologies used today.  Along with other readings this chapter can relate back to the idea of materiality vs. virtuality.  Once the telegraph was invented people had the ability to communicate on a virtual level no longer needing to be face to face to relay information.  Thus communication changed from a material form to a virtual form.  Communication today follows this same pattern by sending messages and ideas through the use of phones and the internet.  The speed of information also changed with the invention of the telegraph.  It could be transmitted instantly speeding up many other processes such as the trading of goods.  As with all new media, the telegraph helped things become faster and more efficient. 

The authors of this article begin by describing a man named Michel de Montaigne.  This man was only 38 years old but felt that his life was coming to an end because of all the misfortunes he experienced.  To escape from his struggles, he would hide in his library of books to read to attain wisdom, a tranquility and constancy of spirit impervious to pain and death.  Hobart and Schiffman explain that prior to this time, having a library of books was only seen by the rich such as a king.  However, things changed and books become more available, which was due to the development of printing.  People now had the ability to "secure their heritage of classical texts against the threat of loss of corruption, thus helping to make the Renaissance revival of antiquity permanent and contributing to out modern attitude toward the past.  Similarly, printing secured advances in a wide range of fields, from anatomy to zoology, encouraging the development of modern science and medicine.  And printing was the fulcrum of the Reformation, enabling religious dissent to inspire a mass movement.  In short it was an epoch-making invention".  These new storage ideas and capabilities were changing the way people acted, and changed what they thought about the past, present, and future.  

Next Hobart and Schiffman mention the codex or the format for new manuscripts.  They explain the new advantages of the book substituting for the previous scroll.  They comment on how much easier it is to find information by flipping to the desired page instead of reading through an entire scroll.   The manuscript changed from a "cumbersome mnemonic aid to a readily accessible information storehouse." In addition the the codex, the gloss and the summa or summary, was introduced to help aid the reader.  The gloss was produced when people would put their own ideas into the text.  Students would often write material into their own words to interpret the commentary during lecture.  The gloss would often include their opinions and their interpretations.  The purpose of the summa was to cut through the diversity of interpretations to establish a core of truth.  It was the idea of gathering together groups of text so that students could establish the central truths among the contrasting materials. 

When I finished this reading, I found it kind of funny to think about a book seeming so extravagant.  When this was all happening, the book and codex format changed information, storage, and accessibility.  Today however, the book seems so tedious and time consuming when you compare it to new advances in technology dealing with computers, the internet, and online text.  Now instead of flipping through hundreds of pages, you can type in key words or page numbers and pull up specific information instantly.  Today, a gloss is unnecessary because a computer can find bold words and link ideas together for the reader.  Even in this class, we do not have a text with a single author, we have a compilation of readings provided online through a stored database so that we have a summa materials provided.  In conclusion, this idea of printing and the book keeps relating back to the beginning lecture that old media was at one time new media.  Each component of today was started by something in the past, which was improved to make things more useful and efficient now. 

Hayles begins this article by describing visual images of wires
dangling from the ceiling.  The wires were sometimes still and at other
times moving quickly.  Hayles explains that the movement is connected
to the flow of information moving through the room.  She provides this
text to explain her idea of virtuality in which information is
represented in a material form.  Next Hayles provides a definition of
virtuality which states that virtuality is "the cultural perception
that material objects are interpenetrated by information patterns". 
She explains that the information is nothing until it is coded and
interpreted.  Hayles then makes a connection between this concept and
biology.  She explains that the body is made up of genotypes or DNA
which represents the information.  It is in turn represented by
phenotypes which can be described as the material message presented. 
Hayles brings up theories of other individuals that correlate to her
theories.  For example, she explains that information is not useful
until it is printed on a book with ink.  Later on in the article she
relates this idea of materiality to the idea of presence and absence. 
In short if the information is present the material representation of
it will be present as well.  If the information is not present, there
will be no representation of anything.  Hayles provides additional explanations and parallel concepts, but the primary message is that the components of information and materiality
act upon one another in order to function.

I had a difficult time understanding this text.  With this being said, I did make some connections between the ideas of intangibility discussed in previous classes.  Just as the database is a place of stored information, it is not something we can actually grasp and hold.  It is just an idea of a spaces and objects.  The same can apply to information.  We can not hold information but we can understand that it is codes or patterns and in turn represents ideas and concepts.  This article keeps relating back to the idea of interfaces and connections between people and objects; the ongoing theme of interactivity to create messages and meaning.     

Manovich begins by explaining the purpose of this article which is to examine the dynamic between spatial form and information which has been with us for a long time, and explain how it functions differently in the computer culture today.  Manovich explains that this idea has no true title, so he decides to call it augmented space in which he defines it as "the physical space overlaid with dynamically changing information".  He derived the term based off of a previous idea called augmented reality. In this reality the user works on actual things in actual space in comparison to a virtual reality in which a uses works on a virtual simulation.  He explains that this type of information is usually in a multimedia form and is often localized for each user. 

He moves on to discuss how the virtual world has begun developing.  It started in the 1990s with the idea of virtual space a non physical space that is "parallel to our world".  Manovich then breaks down the examples of the technological applications that are encompassed in this theory of augment space.  He first talks about video surveillance and how it is no longer limited to government and military but has become a device accessible to anyone.  Next Manovich mentions cellspace technologies.  He explains how technologies such as the surveillance technologies can be translated in to the mobile/wireless media.  He describes the cell space as a physical space that is filled with data which can be retrieved by a user with a personal communication device.  The example provided in the text is a GPS which is a global positioning system that can determine your coordinates, or surf the web or check email. Last Manovich mentions the computer/video display.  This is the invisible layer of cell space that is laid over the physical space to produce an image.  In both private and public places these displays are becoming larger and thinner, and are no longer confined to flat surfaces.  These technological applications will eventually make physical space into a database and people will be able to extract data from everywhere. 

Manovich next describes augmentation and immersion.  He explains the difference between VR and AR, but then explains that the two do not need to be seen as opposites. He provides an example of users getting lost within the world of virtual reality by watching a movie or playing a video game.  The viewer is using the augmented space to get lost in the virtual reality.  Manovich proceeds to augmentation as an idea in which he describes augmented space as an architectural problem.  The virtual layers of contextual information will overlay the built space.  He talks about the 2D and 3D manipulation of space in the virtual world.  The idea of space was previously 2D but has progressed to a 3D visual field. 

I had some difficulty understanding the idea of this reading; however, I feel that this weeks readings take a different outlook compared to the readings in past weeks.  This weeks readings keep referring to the physical aspect of the virtual world.  Manovich keeps relating video surveillance to cell phone usage to computers.  He discusses how one object (a phone or computer) communicates to another physical object in a different location.  In previous articles however, the focus of the literature is not the physical components but the virtual components instead and how technology is advancing.  Previous readings talk about the idea of a database having an seemingly unorganized file system or an interface having interactive components and qualities.  Discussions in previous classes related to seemingly invisible technologies.  With this being said, the previous topics of discussion and the topic of this weeks article need to be present to function.  Things like databases and interfaces would be useless without the devices used to manipulate them.  I understand that without each component, new media can not advance into the future.  All these ideas of video surveillance and cellspace etc. are stepping stones to new developments.   

Kellerman begins this article by discussing new technologies and explains their impact on life.  The main focus however, is the personal mobilities of technology, and space-transcending technologies.  Kellerman begins by discussing personal mobility technologies.  He compares the development of automobiles to the development and use of various communication technologies.  Kellerman explains that automobiles have provided a physical mobility and the telephone and computer have allowed for virtual mobility.  Additionally the idea speed of transmission is increasing while simultaneously the idea of distance is slowly deteriorating with advancements in new technologies. 

Kellerman then begins by discussion the development, the structure, and the operation of new technologies.  Development begins with standardization.  Kellerman states that "standardization procedures for both transportation and communication systems have permitted flexible self-operations by users, and hence facilitated their mass-adoption".  Additionally it has contributed to the efficiency and fast movements of information, people and merchandise.  Next, Kellerman introduces structure.  The physical structure of new communication technologies consist of three layers, one being the physical infrastructure consisting of wires, cables, radio frequency spectrum- the logical infrastructure aka software, and the content layer.  Each of these layers is continuously being upgraded.  Just as Kellerman compares car development and the roads being adjusted to compensate for new cars, the technologies of communication for example upgrade to wireless services and faster processing systems.  Finally the idea of content is unrestricted.  New communication technologies provide individuals freedoms of choice, action, movement, privacy, and progress that incorporated with the field.  Communication in two-way, many-to-one, and many-to-many has become instantaneous. 

The readings from this week provide a very clear understanding of the new technology advancements.  The use of the automobile comparisons gave a clear understanding of innovative technologies in a very concrete form.  After finishing the readings, I came to appreciate the effectiveness of new technologies.  Recently a friend of my traveled to Ireland to study abroad, and due to developments in technology my friend and I are able to communicate instantaneously through the internet and the use of web cams.  These new technologies have provided us with virtual mobility.  We can see and hear the other in real time and space.  Similar to what Kellerman discussed, the idea of distance between us is almost diminished.  On a different note, these new technologies can be incorporated from the previous readings.  For example, the idea of the operation of technologies can be compared to interfaces.  Depending on how the program or device is structured it can effect the networking capabilities, the flow of communication, and thus the human computer interaction.  Also this reading can be connected to the readings discussing new media.  Development of technologies is almost a reflection of new media devices with additional operation and structural components added on. 

Manovich begins this reading by describing a visit to the Razorfish Studios.   He describes the visual layout of his encounter elaborating on the abnormal office structure. He explains that the layout of the office is very similar to the layout of a computer.  The space functions as a metaphor for computers culture incorporating interactivity, lack of hierarchy, and modularity.  He then begins describing the Graphical User Interface (GUI) and how the conventions of GUI are migrating back into our physical reality.  He explains that the ways of storing data were introduced by the conventions of databases and virtual interactive 3D space.  The first is used to store any kind of data such as financial records or movie clips.  The second form of technology is seen in video games, motion rides, computer animation and more.  Manovich explains that these databases are computer-based forms that are migrating back into culture both conceptually as well as literally.  The computer database is becoming "a new metaphor which we use to conceptualize individual and collective cultural memory, a collection of documents or objects, and other phenomena and experiences". 

The passage then moves on and discusses multiple elements of databases and their functions.  Manovich then begins to describe database logic.  He explains that databases are beneficial because the storage is easy also the retrieval of information is organized and fast.  Multiple forms of medai that incorporate databases are CD-ROMs, HTML, and websites.  The CD-ROM provides data storage but provides various ways of accessing the data.  Also, HTML is introduced showing its capabilities of storage in the form of a list.  The HTML is a combination of text, images, video clips, and links to other pages that provide and store data.  Last websites are expressed as computer files which can always be edited.  The main idea behind these programs is that they provide storage for media and do so by breaking the traditional narrative file format.  Manovich then moves on to describe data as an algorithm. He explains that any process or
task is reduced to
an algorithm, a final sequence of simple operations which a computer can
execute to accomplish a given task.  He provides an example of a user playing a video game and they must proceed through multiple levels and battle people and collect treasure to proceed.  Next Manovich discusses databases in comparison to narratives.  Narratives are different from databases because they follow a path instead of keeping data in a unrestricted format.  With this being said however, the user can choose to interact with a narrative system and choose from multiple narrative paths.  Manovich then continues to explain that the media world is continuously competing between the narrative and database format in relation to film production and formatting.  

After reading this passage, I can relate a lot of the text back to discussions from previous classes.  Manovich talks about information formatting and storage.  This technology is surrounding all members of society.  Whether it be someone interacting with a video game in a 3D world, or a person pulling up medical files kept in a certain database file.  I do believe though, that just like all other forms of media, this technology is constantly changing and advancing.  I believe that we will eventually move beyond this idea of a database format and develop something that is even more productive.  Just like we discussed new forms of media in class, for example the production of film, there will always be better ways of manipulating, storing, and accessing data. 

In this article Manovich begins by discussing the relationship between Blade Runner written by Ridley Scott and the evolution of the new Apple computer.  This was a huge event for computer technology pertaining to the Graphical User Interface, (GUI) that is still in effect today.  Manovich then explains that in concurrence with this new computer interface, the internet made a huge impact as well.  The role of the computer began to shift from a particular technology to a filter to all culture.  Lines began to cross not only for information, but the new interface of computers brought work and leisure activities to the same place.  The computer uses the same tools to access a word document as it does to play computer games.   

The next big thing that Manovich discusses is the language of cultural interfaces.  He describes the Human-Computer-Interface (HCI) and explains the way in which humans interact with the computer and how this interaction is evolving.  Over time the computer has advanced from a tool to a universal media machine.  Manovich explains that we are no longer interfacing to a computer but to culture encoded in a digital form.  Also past forms of media have developed the format for the current HCI.  Things like cinema and the printed word contributed to the shaping, appearance, and functionality of cultural interfaces.  The printed word has effects on the layout of the screen dealing with
over lapping windows and dynamic menus. Also the computer documentation
reads like a roll instead of a book making the flow of the information
easily accessible.  This advanced to web pages and hyperlink
capabilities as well.  These ideas impacted the format of the computer and the techniques in things like video games mentioned in the text.  Information is produced in audio and visual moving sequences rather than text. The techniques uses to filming or photography are incorporated into computer programming and manipulation involving things like the 3D graphic technology as well.   

After reading this text, it was shocking to think about the advancements of the computer.  Manovich describes the development of a page; things started out on clay tablets, then moved on to ink on paper, which got replaced by text stored on a computer.  It's amazing to think about how easily one can access information and how intricate and elaborate information is.  What is even more amazing is how the computer technology is still advancing.  The interfaces are not only advancing through the use of a mouse or a keyboard to communicate to a computer, but the interface of web access and hyperlink communication is astonishing.  In addition, these interfaces are even progressing to handheld access with minimal limitation to mobility.  Also the speed in which these interfaces are developing is mind
boggling.  It was only the 1980s when things started off, which was
only 30 years ago!  This technology keeps people connected and informed.  Because society today relies so much on these interfaces, it is hard to image what life would be without it.  I wonder what the future will hold for new concepts and designs related to the field. 

In the article
“What is new media” written by Manovich, the idea of new media is compared and
contrasted to the idea of old media. 
Manovich expresses the importance of understanding the past to explain
the present.  The article begins to
describe inventions in that past such as the “Analytical Engine”, and explains
how these inventions lead to the current technology primarily the
computer.  Manovich explains how old
“computers” were a series of images translated mathematically, compares them to
current computer technologies and expresses how some similar concepts of
mathematical representations are still relevant today.  With this being said, Manovich also expresses
how current technology and computers are interchangeable and interactive.  A photograph on a computer can be readjusted
with lighting, or enlarging or shrinking objects within the photo by changing
the pixilation within the photo.  New
media incorporates multiple functions and attributions to programs such as
visual images, audio, 3-D shapes, film, text and more.  The computer is continuing to evolve and
media is changing along with it.  Film
has taken on a whole new concept.  It is recorded
and stored differently.  Previously film
lost is crispness of the images with each copy. 
But as the digital technology advanced each additional copy is as good
as the first.  Information is easier to
store, easier to access, and easier to manipulate.  The new media that Manovich describes is not
a single object or a moment in time. 
Instead it is a combination of the past and the present.  It is a series of advancements of procedures,
of communication between humans and computers, and it will continue to
expand. 

When I began
reading this article I expected to be bored and wanting to find ANYTHING ELSE
to do with my time.  However, when I
began reading I had an epiphany about new media.  I realized that I was starting straight at it
and I was personally experiencing it.  I
was sitting in my room on my laptop computer reading a link to an article that
is stored in cyberspace that can be shared with millions of other people.  Prior to this event I never thought twice
about having a computer, or having the internet, or having access to so much
information.  This article shocked me
when I thought about how exciting life must have been when the first 20 second
motion picture came out, and how today that seems so insignificant.  After seeing how technology has progressed, with
numbers and images etc, I am thrilled to see what will happen in the future.  Advancements in technology are happening right
and left.  Technology is so advanced that
we can walk around the globe and have communication, entertainment, and
knowledge right at our fingertips or stored in our pocket.  I won’t be surprised if one day a computer
chip is placed into our brains to process information, to play videos or music,
or act as a cell phone to communicate to people instantly just by thinking
about it.