COM257: Media History and Theory

In this week's article "Mobile Telephone History," Tom Farley describes the impact that mobile phones have made on society. Before even reading this article, it seems pretty obvious that a mobile telephone is a mobile device that is used among the general public to stay connected to one another no matter where they may be. Farley also describes the mobile phone as a common carrier of public utility. These mobile telephones first originated in the 1940s after World War II had ended. At first, the mobile devices were not for the general public. They were radio telephones that were mostly used for public services like the fire department and tugboats. Even so, the general public continued to present a demand for faster and easier communication. By July 28, 1945, the cellular radio was described in print for the first time. Then by June 17, 1946,  AT&T and Southwestern Bell started the first Mobile Telephone Service. While the mobile telephone continued to advance in the United States, other countries developed them much more slowly. This is because most governments in other countries did not allow public radiotelephones. One of the first examples of public radiotelephones was on the train. The Metroliner train service allowed passenger to make phone calls even when the train was at speeds more than 160 kilometers per hour. It really wasn't until 1969 that more personal mobile telephones were released. Of course, it wasn't as wide spread or popularized at that point.

When looking at the history of mobile telephones, I think the most interesting or rather amusing part, is the actual mobile phone as an interface. I remember the very first mobile phones I saw in the early 1990s were the ones attached to cars. The simply set in the middle of the console. Of course only the really nice cars had them, but I still remember thinking they were so cool. The next phone I remember is one my mom had. It wasn't attached to the car, but it was about the size of a large potato. It was huge! Today, it seems so silly to think of that phone next to the tiny ones that are popular. After that phone, they all seemed to get a lot smaller. The coolest one to have at the time was the razor because it was sleek and thin. Now, even the razor is out of style. Today, touch screens are the craze, while the size is still small, and definitely not the size of a large potato. Besides the physical interface, the virtual one has changed as well. Now we can text, email, and play games on our phones, which was definitely not found on the original mobile phones.

-Jessica Swanner

This weeks article, "Introduction", by Juul, explores the world of video games. Juul has decided that video games are very in-depth and complex. Also, video games must be seen as half-real because they incorporate both reality and imagination. Juul explains this further by discussing the slaying of a dragon on a video game. Even though the player can virtually kill the dragon on the screen in front of them, it is not a real dragon in the real world that the player has killed. After the game is turned off, there will be no real life effects from the killing that took place. Of course, there is much controversy over whether games involving violence will carry the same vicous mind set out into the real world. In fact, many of the games today have mush more realistic ideas portrayed such as stealing cars and killing people instead of only the very fictional dragon as Juul discusses.

Another way Juul looks at video games is as an example of a structure. Emergence and progression are the two main ways to consider video games as structures. Emergence is basically when a set number of simple rules are created to make interesting variations for the game. Progression involves individual challenges that must be followed in order to get to the end of the game. Today, progression is the more popular structure and creates more of an adventure.

Juul also describes the classic model used for the creation of video games. The model involves six features that work on three different levels. First, there is the level of the game itself with its set of perticular rules. Then there is the level of the player relationship to the game. The last level is the relationship between the actually playing the game and the rest of the outside world. The six features that go along with the modle include: A rule-based formal system, variable and quantifiable outcomes, different outcomes are assigned different values, the player exerts effort in order to influence the outcome, the player feels emotionally attached to the outcome, and the consequences of the activity and optional and negotiable.

Juul also discusses the imortance of the rules in video games. It is important that the player will find the rules simple and easy enough to understand and remember. However, the tasks the player must overcome must be oppositely difficult to complete. Another words, the player wants a challenge, but they want to understand how they will win the game. If the rules seem to difficult to follow, the player may become too frustrated to continue. 

I have never been very interested in video games, except for the occasional mario party that is rediculously unrealistic. However, after reading this article I am beginning to realize how some people become so addicted to the games. Going along with the six features, it seems that the creators make the player become emotionally involved. The players probably begin to get lost in the mind set of the game and believe they are really the character on the screen. In fact, games these days seem to be getting even more realistic all the time. I just worry that some people waste there lives away living in a fictional world when they should be finding real adventure in the outside world.

-Jessica Swanner

In "What is Web 2.0: Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation," Tom O'Reilly basically describes what Web 2.0 is and how it will effect future generations in association with new software. Web 2.0 hasn't always been the first internet method used, before it was dot-com, which callapsed. When the dot-com callapsed, it created a huge turning point for the web. The web was more important than it had been in  the past and more and more cites  were being created at a exceeding rate. O'Reilly also tries to further define Web 2.0 because there was a lot of controversy over whether it was just a worthless idea that was over talked or a new invention that was worth while.

O'Reilly seems to believe that Web 2.0 does not have any boundaries that exist and instead, it has a gravitational pull towards its core. He even goes as far as comparing the system to the solar system. Web 2.0 has a gravitational pull like the sun to keep all of the websites, planets, in an orbit. He is saying that it is important to consider Web 2.0's place in the internet and how the internet uses networks with cites that revolve around the "core."

Furthermore, O'Reilly  talks about seven main principles that go along with Web 2.0. The first principle is the idea that the Web is a platform. The second principle is Harnessing Collective Intelligence. The third principle discussed is Data as the next Intel inside. The forth principle O'Reilly talks about is the End of the Software Release Cycle. The fifth principle is the Lightweight programming models. In the last principle, O'Reilly discusses Software Above the Level of a Single Device.

It seems that most of this class is spent discussing the transformation from old media to new. This Web 2.0 was definitely a new media even though it may seem old to me now since it has been around for about as old as I am. Thanks to Web 2.0 the internet works faster and more efficiently. Somehow, I always seem to be running a tight schedule and I really need the high speed I get on my computer from the Web 2.0. One of the most common forms I use is Vista. I seem to be on that constantly, but I also use forms like itunes as O'Reilly mentioned in the reading.

-Jessica Swanner

In "Popularizing the Internet", Abbate describes
how the internet was introduced to the public and how it emerged into society.
The internet started in the 1990s as a medium for public communications.
However, before that it took many years to develop it into something that was
user friendly. In the beginning, a user could only access a very small amount
of networks and even those networks were really only for defense research and
operations purposes. Obviously, these networks were of no interest to the general
public. Finally, after many years the internet became broader to the public and
developed more networks, more computers, and included more users. It
transferred from military control to civilian control. This was basically the
start of the World Wide Web, more commonly seen as the www. before a website
address. Making the web world wide created many more possibilities for the
users. The Internet began being used for researching information, interacting
with other users on a social level, entertainment, and a more creative
self-expression. All of this is so amazing to have today. It would be nice to
be able to thank one person for creating this master piece for us, but really
it's not possible. So many different people and agents had a part in creating the
internet that no one had the upper hand in the development of it.  ARPA was the first to begin working on the
internet, even though it was military based. However, additional research
networks came along like universities. Then, in 1979, a computer scientist,
Lawrence Landweber, called everyone together so they could work as one. Infact,
in the second meeting, an ARAP member connected ARPANET with CSNET, which were
of the biggest networks. Later, in 1983 ARPANET split into two separate networks.
Each was known as ARPANET and MILNET. While MILNET continued working as a
military service, it made sense for ARPANET to work more for civilians. So, the
internet became slowly more popularized and accessible on more computers.
Networks began to grow because more computers were adding internet access and this
created a need for more localized networks. In 1982 there were only 15 networks,
but by 1986 it had grown to more than 400 different networks! With so many
networks, the access codes were too long and too complex.  That is why ARAP decided to make 6 basic
domains: edu, gov, mil, com, org, and net.

I can't remember the first time I used the internet. That is probably because it has been around since I was born. However, I know I would not be as interested in it if it was only government information. I use the internet for school sometimes, but many times I use it for socializing and communicating with people. I am so thankful for the different networks that make this available to me. I actually find myself using all of the other networks besides gov, even though the first internet was for the government.

-Jessica Swanner

Epsen J. Aarseth begins his discussion on "Nonlinearity and Literary Theory" by introducing nonlinearity. Aarseth approaches this term in a very mathematical instead of a scientific way. This disagreement strongly resists Katherine Hayles' scientific perspective. He describes nonlinearity as properties of geometric figuresthat are not changed as long as the surfaces are not torn. This occurs even under distortion. It seems that their is a big difference between reading nonlinear text and text influenced by fractal geometry and chaos theory. Along with being described mathematically, nonlinearity must also be thought of in topological terms. The order and placement of letters and syntagms is important. 

All of these terms seem very confusing to me, but basically we are just looking at the  differences between different copies of a text. Words and sequence may differ from reading to reading because of the different ways the information can be presented. One of the biggest examples of this is the difference in seperate interfaces. Books have been around forever, but now the same information is being presented online. It has to be displayed in a different way, but carries the same message when put online.

 The first example I think of is the differences in documents on a computer. While many documents can be saved on the computer, there are many different formats.That may not seem like a big deal, but text definitely appears differently when opened or saved in different formats. Sometimes, if it is not compatible with your computer, it will even show up in a foreign font. Clearly, this is a problem from nonlinearity.

-Jessica Swanner

Briggs and Burke continue their article "Information, Education, and Entertainment" by discussing the age of television. When the idea of television was first presented people that worked in the broadcasting industry found it hard to visualize how television would fit into society. Society seemed to be satisfied with radio and no one saw a place for television. The economy was low at the beginning of the television age because the United States was in a depression. However, when the United States enter WWII, both NBC and CBS began scheduling television broadcasts, even though they were very limited. Briggs and Burke further discuss how television was expected to attract mainly the upper class groups in society. However, after the war, television was described as "the poor man's latest and most prized luxury." Instead of going to cinemas to watch movies, television became the new fad. This was sad because ironically, motion pictures were at a peak at this time. Even so, President Eisenhower said, "If a citizen has to be bored to death, it is cheaper and more comfortable to sit at home and look at television than it is to go outside and pay a dollar for a ticket." So, ultimately, television was welcomed into everyone's homes. Television broadcasting was more focused on entertainment, rather than news broadcasting like in radio. Of course, there were some difficulties that came along with this new entertainment. People worried that a lot of television was not suitable for children and were curious as to how television could be monitored. Language, decency, and violence were the factors at stake. 

The issue with ethics that people had has seemed to dissapear more and more over the years. Even though we have television ratings, many of the requirements for the ratings have changed and become more leinient it seems. I remember seeing the Titantic when I was young and my mother thought that it was bad for a PG-13 movie because of the excess language, and brief nudity. However, now PG-13 movies have twice as much violence, language, and nudity as that movie did. We have slowly come to accept more and more.

-Jessica Swanner

In the first part of the assigned reading "Information, Education, and Entertainment", Briggs and Burke begin by introducing the radio as "sound broadcasting". They point out that sound broadcasting must be discussed before television, because obviously it came first, but also because the same institutions that developed the age of television began with the age of broadcasting. Some of the most famous institutions that began radio broadcasting were NBC and CBS in the United States and BBC in Britain. Of course each network had different programs, but one thing that really set each apart were the announcers.

One of the most famous announcers to this day was Ed Murrow. He was one of the greatest radio reporter of the war. In fact, Briggs and Burke even called him "an institution in himself." Murrow was so famous because he brought the war into the homes of Americans. MacLeish described it as destroying "the superstition of distance." With the war being so far away, people back in the United States were unsure of what exactly was going on. Murrow created a sense of understanding with society and created trust with the audience.

Other announcers were even more shocking to listeners ears. Leaders all over the world began to use broadcasting to reach their countries and allow themselves to seem more real. While neither Lenin nor Stalin used broadcast personally, Hitler as well as Franklin D. Roosevelt were two leaders that used broadcasting to their advantage. Hitler was a fan of the microphone. He wrongly used it as a manipulating weapon the gain power and fear among his people. FDR on the other hand, used the radio to overcome the hostility the press had shown him. He called his broadcasting "Fireside Chats." He wanted Americans to feel like he was sitting with them in their homes sharing his concerns for them. This was extremely popular and on one of his public addresses an astounding 64 percent of American radios listened in.

Because most of the age of broadcasting came along in a time of war, it seems great that politics were being expressed to the public and making them feel included or maybe more united. However, everything was not being broadcasted. In almost every country, the government had full control over what was broadcasted. This was because the government feared that many of the truths of war would create panic, fear, or doubt among citizens in the country. The government wanted a positive attitude at all times. Of course, the Nazis were one of the most controlling, but even the United States was restricting braodcasts. BBC, in Britain, however, had the widest variety of programming before, during, and after the war compared to others. They took pride in broadcasting "real" news as well as even a lot of pop music when directed not too.

Aside from all of the political programming were the fictional programs. These programs were more for entertainment that information and originally entertainment had been the bigger plan for radio than war broadcasting. However, networks, especially BBC, felt it was their obligation to inform society of bigger issues at stake. Some of the programs that were popular in the United States were The Fall of the City and The War of the Worlds. The Fall of the City was a verse play in which Orson Wells was the voice behind the story. Wells was also the radio announcer for The War of the Worlds program that was a transformed version of H.G. Wells's novel. Orson Wells made this fictional program seem so real that many people believed it was actually happening and it created a sense of panic. Dorothy Thompson thought that this program was important because the sense of fear it created was much like the terrorisms of war that were going on at the time, that people were oblivious to.

Overall, I can see how the radio played such an important historical role. So much was going on in the world at the time and sound broadcasting brought it into the living rooms of people all over the world. Even though I have never set by a radio listening to a program, I can think of several movies I have seen that show the use of sound broadcasting. The first is "A Christmas Story". In the movie, the radio is used for the entertainment of a little boy more than anything else. He listened to a radio show called "Little Orphan Annie". Another movie I have seen that gets more into the behind the scenes of the radio is "Goodnight, and Goodluck." This movie was about Ed Murrow's career as a broadcaster and how he would sometimes go against the government's wishes to speak the truth, much like BBC insisted on doing.

-Jessica Swanner

The article by James Carey, "Technology and Ideology: The Case of the Telegraph" focuses on the history of the telegraph. Carey recognizes that the telegraph paved the way for many of the technologies we use today. In general, Carey doesn't think the telegraph has been given credit where credit is due. The telegraph was such an innovative invention because it allowed immediate communication from long distances. Sometimes messages are far too important to wait on "snail" mail to relay them. It was astonishing to Carey that such an exciting invention has not been studied more. Indeed, the telegraph was a huge innovation and it took a lot of effort to get it started. Carey talks about three different relationships that took place in order to make the telegraph possible. First, there was a struggle between the telegraph and monopoly capitalism. This just means that society needed to first accept the new media in the economic and political world. It cost a lot of money to get the telegraph working because new structures and advancements were required. The second relationship was between the telegraph and ideology. This ideology was through popular imagery. The third relationship Carey discussed was between telegraphs and electricity. This was an important factor to consider since this power or energy was not visible to the human eyes alone. After all of these relationships were met, the telegraph could make it's impact. One of the biggest changes was that communication would no longer require transportation. Yes, people still sent letters by train or automobiles etc., but this was the first communication that simply used the telegraph as an interface and did not require further transportation. News could be spread a a much faster rate, whether it was in case of danger or breaking news. 

 I definitely agree with Carey, that the telegraph deserves more credit than it has received in the past. The speedy transfer of messages can be extremely important in many circumstances. I mean, if my house was burning down, before the telegraph, I would have to find a way by transportation to alert a fire station, put it out my self, or watch my house burn to the ground. There are definitely many other situations, where urgency is of the most importance. However, I also think that since the development of this telegraph we continue to use speedy communication where it is not necessary. I remember my grandfather used to show me old letters he had written and I always thought they were so eloquently written. Now days, people communicate so quickly, without pausing to phrase things just right, so that the true meanings of messages are lost. I know I have misinterpreted text messages many times. A real letter, shows more commitment and preciseness in the message being relayed.

-Jessica Swanner 

"Printing and the Rupture of Classification" begins in the time period in which hand written manuscripts were the only way to preserve and share information. However, Hobart and Schiffman primarily focus on the impact the ability to print made on society. The authors note that men like Michel de Montaigne might not have had as much success with out the printing press. After serving as a member of parliament in Bordeaux, he retired and made a library out of his chateau. He spent his time reading the works of many philosophers, even the contradicting ones, and decided to write a series of essays. Today they are known as the Essays. It is likely that the Essays would not exist if the printing press had not been developed because allowed more information to be spread. Hobart and Schiffman refer to this process of opening the world to many new ideas as changing the "intellectual landscape." Without the printing press the history of many societies may have been lost. Also, scientific fields were able to develop more because information was recorded and shared at a more rapid speed than before the printing press. Furthermore, the printing press aided the religous reformations by allowing more and more people access to the Bible. Basically, as printing began to popularize, it took off! Books began to be massed produced. With so much printing going on, organization was required. Printing established a codex, gloss, and summae. The codex made finding information within the text easier because a specific page could be found instead of searching an entire scroll. The gloss was important because it allowed a space for readers to place their ideas into the text and interpret it in their own way. Lastly, the summae introduced the key concepts to the reader. Now, we call it the summary. The best thing about all of these advancements is that it led to higher educational development among the common people.

 It made such a huge impact on society when the printing press made all of these improvements to the intellect of the world. Everyone was so excited to be introduced to such an exciting concept. However, today there is less and less use of printed books everyday. As the internet continues to grow and take over, books are slowly disappearing. The problem is that most texts can be found online, which saves people physical effort. Even though the internet seems to be taking over literature, I don't think books will ever stop being made because some people continue to enjoy a hard copy of text. I'm one of them!

-Jessica Swanner

Hayles begins discussing "The Condition of Virtuality" by discribing virtuality. She states that "virtuality is the cultural perception that material objects are interpenetrated by information patterns" (Hayles, p.69). Furthermore, there are two parts to the virtuality, materiality and information. Both of these concepts are backed up by molecular biology because genetics deal with patterns and the human body is the "material object." She seems to go along with the fact that genes and the body go in one way. The body is developed based on the genes, but the body does not change the genes. Similarly, information does not depend on material form. The same information can exist in a totally different material forms. Hayles also discusses transcoding because information must be extracted from one material form in order to continue the pattern and encode it into a different material form. Aside from this concept she focuses on the elements of virtuality. She talks about access because information can only be mentally used and never physically possessed. Another element is mutation which is the idea that once a pattern goes astray, a new one must be configured.

When Hayles discusses access and the importance of it I think of this blog. This blog that we use for com 257 is a perfect example that our information is not able to be possessed. Once we post this, anyone can see it and read our information we have provided. It seems like the more we have started using the virtual world to hold our information, the more ideas get passed around. In the past, ideas were not bounced around as frequently besides books and articles. Now, everything has the ability to filter through other minds easily and  receive feedback.

-Jessica Swanner

Manovich focuses on defining augmentation in this article. He intends to position the concept in a historical and cultural way, instead of just technologically. Augmentation can be defined as the physical space overlaid with dynamically changing information. This information is most commonly multimedia and is usually localized for individual users. While augmentation seems to be very much about electronics, computers, and network technologies, Manovich actually tries to concentrate on the human experience in augmented space.

During the '90s, cyberspace and virtual space were the rage. Into the 21st century, physical space became important, which was filled with electronic visual information. There are several technological applications that are examples that dynamically deliver or extract data to or from physical space. Some of these that Manovich mentions include: video surveillance, cellspace technologies (mobil/wireless media), and computer/video displays. There are many paradigms that cover this theory.

When a spatial form is filled with dynamic and rich multimedia information, as Manovich discusses, New York City immediately comes to mind. I have only been there once, but there is no way I could forget the buildings with walls completely covered with electronic screens. Manovich describes similar "particular urban spaces" in Tokyo, Hong Kong, and Seoul. The flashing electronic screens and signs in New York are part of an augmented space. These buildings represent the physical space that has been around for many years, but thanks to new media this space is overlaid with dynamically changing information. The information is typically in multimedia form. I remember seeing signs that electronically flipped  advertisements and I also saw some signs that were digital. The coolest augmented space was an electronic billboard that showed complete music videos.

-Jessica Swanner

Kellerman opens his discussion by introducing technologies for personal mobilities. As a reader, we would expect a technological perspective. However, Kellerman instead draws from spatial and social perspectives. He mainly focuses on space-transcending technologies and socio-spatial aspects. The relationship between the two is constantly changing. Space-transcending technologies are self-operated by individual users. These technologies can be further catagorized by physical and virtual spatial mobility. Physical spatial mobility is most commonly thought of as the automobile, although motorcycles, self-driven boats or planes are also examples. Virtual Spatial Mobility was first the telephone, then the internet, and now technologies used for wireless communication. The flip side to the Space-transcending technologies is the technology-transcending space. The “Speed Space” (Dercon, 2001) is a space where the speed of machines is manipulated, contrary to human life.

When looking at Kellerman's ideas I am beginning to look at mobility in a new way. At first, when mobility comes to mind I think of transportation. I like to think of everything in a very physical way. However, that is what makes new technology so different from the past. Everything is virtual. It can still be equally fullfilling to meet your destination on a website on the internet as driving to a place. I really think the main idea behind this new mobility is the change in speed. For example, I might need to pay some bills. I could physically drive an automobile to hand deliver a check, which could take about 30 minutes or I could click a few times on the computer and have it payed in no time. This refers to the "speed space" mentioned. It is hard to manipulate human life to be as fast as the speed of new technologies today like computers.

Manovich begins by discussing the paradigm developed in the 1970's, Graphical User Interface. The Graphical User Interface is a theory involving the idea that the formatting of computers is based on familiar physical interfaces. Since computers were originated for the work world, not pleasure or entertainment like today, a object around the office were thought of as a familiar physical interface. Of course, an office includes items such as file cabinets, a desk, a trash can, and folders. This paradigm seemed logical in the 70's, however, now, Manovich is looking in a new direction. He believes the paradigm is being reversed in today's culture. For example, Manovich buys a valet that emulates forward and reverse buttons found on the web browser of a computer.He believes that we are going back to physical reality.

This relates to other forms of computer media. The first form Manovich discusses is a database, which stores data. A computer data base is much differenttoday from the simple files and folders found on a desk that the interface originally resembled. For example, it contains different media types such as music and video. The second form is virtual interactive 3D space. This includes computer animation, video games, and human-computer interfaces. It seems pretty obvious that none of these things were found on a desk back in the 70's. Both of these forms of computer media show the paradigm shift.

It's funny to think of the computer interface as a "desk" top, simply because most of the things I use a computer for are not possible to do simply in an office with a desk and some folders. The best example, and most frequently used, is facebook. Facebook is a social network that stores a database of friends, pictures, and messages. I don't believe it was EVER possible to store your friends in a cabinet or file. Computers have expanded past work and more into entertainment. Interfaces are having to change since the idea of working at a desk no longer appies to most of the computer's abilities.

In "The Interface", Manovich further explores the movement of new media and the role of the computer in the process. The interaction society has with this new media is considered interface. He begins with the Graphical User Interface (GUI). This form of interface is associated with the memory factor. Macintosh was the first to introduce this concept. With the memory capability, users are able to store large amounts of  information for potentially forever. Manovich goes into further detail on interfaces by creating two main categories in order to understand interfaces. The first is the Human-Computer Interface (HCI). This concept explains the use of the computer as a tool. Now, work and leisure could be access at the same time through the computer.The second categorie was Modern Interface, which explains the transformation of computer screens. Some examples of this would be scrolling abilities, cropping, and cinematic techniques. Both help us understand the impact computers make on today's society.

After understanding what interfaces are and the ways society is impacted by computers, Modern Interface really brings back memories I can associate with screens. One of the first types of new media or computers I used was a calculator. The most distinct thing about the calculator is the tiny recangular screen that shows a strip of numbers. These number were of course in only black print and couldn't continue past the single line. Later on I began to use a more complex type of computer in elemantary school. They were Macintosh computers that displayed an entire screen with many rows of data. They also used more htan one color, green and purple! While these computers were exciting when compared to calculators, non of it is like the screen abilities we have today. Now, I can watch full color videos on computers and scroll up and down to viewmillions of lines of information. The screens and possibilities seems endless when I look at the progression this new media has made.

-Jessica Swanner

As media continues to advance everyday, New Media emerges and is defined in a way Manovich finds "limiting" in the article "What is New Media?" Manovich examines what makes media "new". He believes the definition of New Media is limiting because it is centered around the current media and doesn't sum up the evolution of media over the past. New Media are the most popular forms of media that consumers use, which most recently includes computers. Manovich believes the definition of New media is limiting because it is centered on the distributing and exhibiting of computers and computers are not always going to be the newest form of media. To broaden the definition Manovich presents 5 concepts to better determine what New Media really is. The 5 key components are numerical representation, modularity, automation, variability, and transcoding. Numerical representation involves media's abilty to be mathematical and programmable. Modularity is the idea that media is made of seperate pieces and each part is seperate in its own way. Automation is the process of using both numerical representation and modularity to effect media. Variability explains that new media is constantly developing, but in many different forms. Transcoding describes the importance of data being clear to humans, but also programmable with a computer. Overall, new media has developed over many years since the first printing press described by Manovich to the computers we use today. After considering Manovich's arguement, it is clear that computing will always be an essential part of new media. 

When computing and New Media comes to mind I am immediately thinking of cell phones. Cell phones such as Blackberry's and iphones seem very much like computers to me. It is amazing to see how fast New media arrises. It seems like only yesterday cell phones only called people, instead of texting, emailing, and picture messaging. While my cell phone is not quite up to date, my boyfriend's iphone makes me think of variability. I have used his iphone to go on the internet and check emails as well as look at facebook. I am amazed that the quality is very much the same as my computer. The internet is constantly changing and developing, but it is also taking many different forms and can be accessed in many different places.

-Jessica Swanner