COM257: Media History and Theory

Looking back on the history of one of the most widely used form of communication of today shows the progression of technology and how mobile phones have evolved over the last century. Mobile telephones did not emerge into American culture until after WWII, not due to lack of resources or consumer demand, but rather because after the war the US was physically intact, large telephone labs had many of the radio engineers and scientists, and the Motorola corporation had quickly grown during the war. It was not until 1945 when the first mobile phones were discussed to the public, and in 1946 AT&T alongside Southwestern Bell began operating the first mobile telephone service. Mobile phones were located in cars and would connect to a centrally located antenna in the area. An operator would connect calls between people, and worked along six channels. Quickly following this event, many major cities were waiting to be the next for a mobile telephone service. Other providers entered the MTS industry and technology was being refined to reach more people faster. In 1948, the operator was eliminated and the mobile phone connected to others alone.  From the late 1940's through the next few decades, companies competed to create better parts and technology for mobile phones to conform to, making them more widely accessible and better produced, and by the beginning of the 70's every telecommunications company was accustomed to the idea of cellular radio. 

Though all this had been occurring over many years the first commercial cellular radio system was not introduced to the American public until 1969 by the Bell System. It still took many more years and battles with the government and between companies to introduce hand held mobile phones to the general public. The cellular movement in Europe began a few years before the US adopting the analog system, in 1981, and in 1983 Motorola introduced the Dyna-TAC to the US. This phone was the size of a house hold phone, with a large antenna attached. In 1990, the North American cellular network switched to a digital standard system IS-54, allowing more capacity and was able to link with the former AMPS systems. In 1996, Nokia introduced a phone which allowed users to connect to the internet, check e mail, and send and receive faxes, though this phone changed the use of the phone, it was limited in its abilities lacking voice capabilities. 2000, the first camera phone came out, and companies turned to looking at the placement of internet on phones. Presently we have a wide choice of phones, most standard with internet connection and camera phones, all in color too none the less. In 2005 researchers predicted that cell phone use would top 2 billion, by the end of the year, I'm sure that those numbers have expanded far beyond the expectations of reasearchers.

Cell phones have become an essential part of Americans daily lives. Leaving home without it for a day sends people into a panic feeling disconnected and out of sorts not knowing what is going on. Our culture has transformed the mobile phone from the sole use to talk to people to connecting to the internet, sending text messages, gps, and many other uses. The major companies took many years to create a system to allow so many users to connect at high speeds and refine the custom house phone to a small portable device most keep in their back pockets. Just in the last decade the mobile phone has evolved past peoples wildest dreams. I am certain that many more improvements will continue to be made to cell phones in the next ten years, making us all laugh at the phone we currently use and asking ourselves the question of how did we think they were so high tech. Mobile phones have allowed society to stay more interconnected, and changed the way people interact with one another. Next to the internet, the are one of the greatest communication technologies of the 20th century and will continue to change our communication through the next. 

Lauren Lopez-Ibanez 

Games date back to the Egyptian era and have been an overlooked part of cultures that has continued to appear in each era proceeding. In today's culture video games have become a very popular source of new media and entertainment that have borrowed the idea of centuries past board games, and has provided a way to play old games in new ways. Video games also have combined fictional worlds along with sets of rules for users to interact with and create the video game experience. This article looks at the interaction between game rules and game fiction. Juul states "To play a video game is therefore to interact with rules while imagining a fictional world, and a video game is a set of rules as well as a fictional world" (pg. 1). Video games stray away from traditional games in the sense that they rules are used at the players discretion. Players can follow the set of rules, but also they are able to use the rules to better understand the game, and improve their skills in navigating the fictional world. Juul describes the two main structures of games, emergence and progression. Emergence being that the game holds a small number of rules, but allows for numerous ways of game variation, such as cards. Progression, which is what we see in video games today, is where the player must follow a particular set of rules and actions in order to win the game. This structure lends more control to the game designer and the order of events for players to complete the game. There is a six feature model that most games follow. This model allows for variation in games, and for users to be more in control of how they play the game. This is similar to the online books where one decision would lead you to one ending and other choices to different endings. Video games adapted this same theory, applying it to visual aspects and allowing more control of characters by the players rather than the game designers.  

Games are seen as intricate problems for people to solve. As discussed in this introduction, people solve problems in many different ways, and this same concept applies to that of video games. They are structured for players to solve, but players use different methods to solve problems, not every player completes the game by using the same steps. In class we talked about with the first computer video games it was necessary to keep a detailed log of each step taken to ensure that you would be able to finish the game. This is no longer important because games have been formed for people to utilize the rules and fictional world to navigate their own path to the finish, there is no longer just one way to complete each game.  Video games have just recently become a more popular phenomena, and thus have only sparked the interest of researchers in later years. Researchers have looked at the players and the fictional worlds, their stories and the culture of video games. The primary discussion became that of narratology (games as stories) versus ludology (the uniqueness of games). The resting compromise of this argument consisted that the uniqueness of games is undeniable, as well as the stories and fiction of games is also ascertainable in discussions. 

Half the fun of games and winning is overcoming the problem and beating the rules to the game. The rules allow for games to be played and won, and make them more challenging and exciting. Just as football and basketball would not be as exciting without the penalties, the same goes for video games. The rules of the fictional world make it more exciting to players, and also provide a challenge for players to learn to both use and overcome while playing. People enjoy all types of games for various reasons, and video games are no exception to this. We have all played both games and board games and all for different reasons, some are for entertainment and others for the thrill of the problem. Video games are still a growing new media that I believe has just began to take shape, games have been around for centuries, and video games helped to progress this theme in our culture and will continue to shape the way players interact with games. 

This intrduction by Juul was interesting in opening up many ideas of video games without presenting a bias argument. Video games have become an adaptation of games that people have always loved to play. My brother is a huge "gamer", and watching him play and relating back to this reading, I am able to identify the story and fiction of these games, but also see how players become emerged into the worlds and rules. These video games are a source of entertainment and media, but the problems and strategies which players use to complete stages in games is extremely important. This game world, which my brother will only leave if necessary is based on him working with other teammates to solve the problem and reach their goal to the next. It may seem silly, but they are more intricate than they appear, and in my experiences, I have failed not understanding the games and therefore not being able to complete it. The rules and fiction are both an important part, and video games will continue to be more researched as a new media in the future.

Lauren Lopez-Ibanez 

Just as people were questioning if the web had hit its prime spot during the dot com burst, O'Reilly and fellow researchers began to find that the web was just beginning and offered lots of room for expansion. In this article by O'Reilly, the changes of the web and how it was used as a base for many application outlets are discussed in looking at the transition of Web 1.0 to 2.0. This idea of Web 2.0 is defined not by a set of rules or boundaries, but rather by a set of principles that are further explored in this article. Seven main principles are associated with Web 2.0; The web as a platform, harnessing collective intelligence, data is the next intel intelligence, end of the software release cycle, lightweight programming models, software above the level of a single device, and rich user experience. These seven principles aid in the defining and understanding of what the Web 2.0 is, and how it has transformed over the years. 

Beginning with the web as a platform, O'Reilly compares Netscape and Google. Unlike its predecessor, Netscape, Google was introduced as a free application over the internet. It provides a constant database of information that connects users to other sites. Google acts as the interface between data and users. There is no software that internet users must perviously own in order to use Google. This marked a major change in software and how companies utilized services such as Google and Netscape. Google is a platform linking people to whatever information is desired and connects people without needing browser or server information beforehand.  O'Reilly continues with examples of the web as a platform emphasizing that key components to the web as a platform are the that with Web 2.0 there is a higher level of customer self service, and that as services are more widely used, the better that they will become, and these improvements are automatic for all users. The second principle of harnessing collective intelligence teaches that the best way to success on the internet is the use of user contributions. Hyperlinks have allowed connecting information from one site to another by a simple click, its allows information to stay more closely correlated and makes information more readily available. Ebay and Amazon rely on users to provide information and connect with other users of these sites. The success lies within better connection between people and the sites, Wikipedia is an extremely popular site, which is formed by users contributing more information. The web has developed into a large database that is constantly being update and accessed by users. This leads into the next principle of data is the next intel inside, which raises the question of who owns all this data. O'Reilly points out that control over these databases thus leads to control over the market, which then result in large pay outs to those in control. Just as there was a movement for free software in the movement to Web 2.0, O'Reilly believes that within the next movement to Web 3.0, there will be a call for a movement of free data.

Moving into the fourth principle, end of the software release cycle, it is again pointed out that software is no longer a product but a service to users. This changes the way that software companies act as a business. Two of the main changes that are discussed are operations must become a core competency and that users must be treated as co-developers. With more competitors in the software industry, it is breaking down the old standards which allowed for software companies to have a supreme advantage. Lightweight programming models is the fifth principle of the web 2.0. The simplicity of different applications and sites makes it easier for users and makes them far more popular with the public. Lightweight programming models allow for loosely coupled systems, syndication rather that restriction of information, and are designed for "remixabilitly". These advantages allow for re-use of information and permits that different services can be created from other existing ones. Software above the level of a single device, the sixth principle, points out the fact that the web is no longer restricted to computers. Now people are able to access the internet and from a multitude of devices and the web becomes an even larger platform spanning out further. Itunes is the example used, this application links the mobile iPod to the computer database, which then is linked to the web platform where the source of the data is held. This principle is one of the more quickly changing and growing aspects of the web and has began to allow devices to deliver information rather than just using it. Finally, the last principle of rich user experience, explores the use web based applications that have rich user interfaces that are comparable to the interactivity of PC's. Gmail was the first application which encompassed this aspect and was soon followed by many other web applications. Many of the features that are being used are not new features, but are now being better utilized in newer applications that makes them more desirable and they are being better incorporated. These seven principles embody what the web 2.0 is and continue to define to the transformation of the web as a platform. 

This article is extremely interesting in pointing out what changes have been made in the internet over the past decades. Though people feared the internet had reached its potential, it continues to act as a platform that is constantly adapting to the changing needs of users and the new applications being added to the web. I now understand the web as a platform, and agree that we use it in many ways to stay connected to both people and information. This article helps to show the importance of the users, and how we are in control of the web, by our continuous use of applications and services we help to shape how they grow and develop. I believe that the web will continue to act as a platform, but I also think that there will be new principles added to O'Reilly's list in the coming years as users continue to define what the web is and who controls the data. 

Lauren Lopez-Ibanez 

Abbate discusses one of the most influential new media sources of the twentieth century, the internet. From its military origins it has blossomed into one of the most widely used sources for communication and information for public and private uses. The internet has been such an affective medium due to its ability to conform to many different need, and its widespread accessibility. The modularity of the internet was noted in this article, and is the large contributer to the success of itThe internet welcomed new and different networks of people and was able to be modified to fit different users needs. It began as a research tool, with few graphics and slow access. Today we use it for homework, information, communication, and entertainment. 

The internet began under the control of the military for its own uses and purposes, and then slowly branched into other areas including reacher and then made its way to the general public in later years. Reachers began to use ARPANET, and eventually there became a split in the networks which different groups of people used. Schools began to receive free access to CIX a branch of ARPANET. With the free access to the internet it diminished opportunities for monopolies and forced the internet to be free to users. As more people were introduced to the internet its means as a communication medium expanded. Advertisments began to be placed on web pages, e-mail was created, and the world wide web allowed for a clean organization of information for anyone to access and use. All of these things allow for quick communication between faces, with the internet acting as the newest form of an interface. 

Society without the internet today is unimaginable. This class as does many others uses the internet for assignments and class information. The internet has become so common and popular, that we use the internet for most of our information and means of communication. Email has changed the way people interact with one another and has expedited the transfer of data from one user to another. Not only has the internet allowed for better communication between people, but it has also allowed for information previously difficult to access, available with the click of a mouse. The internet has saved hours of time for people both trying to deliver and gathering information. The internet may not be perfected yet, but it has revolutionized the way people interact with each other and the way which data is accessed. The internet continues to change and offer more to people, and I cannot wait to learn what the internet has in store for the future and how it will continue to shape our culture. 

-Lauren Lopez-Ibanez 

Abbate discusses one of the most influential new media sources of the twentieth century, the internet. From its military origins it has blossomed into one of the most widely used sources for communication and information for public and private uses. The internet has been such an affective medium due to its ability to conform to many different need, and its widespread accessibility. The modularity of the internet was noted in this article, and is the large contributer to the success of itThe internet welcomed new and different networks of people and was able to be modified to fit different users needs. It began as a research tool, with few graphics and slow access. Today we use it for homework, information, communication, and entertainment. 

The internet began under the control of the military for its own uses and purposes, and then slowly branched into other areas including reacher and then made its way to the general public in later years. Reachers began to use ARPANET, and eventually there became a split in the networks which different groups of people used. Schools began to receive free access to CIX a branch of ARPANET. With the free access to the internet it diminished opportunities for monopolies and forced the internet to be free to users. As more people were introduced to the internet its means as a communication medium expanded. Advertisments began to be placed on web pages, e-mail was created, and the world wide web allowed for a clean organization of information for anyone to access and use. All of these things allow for quick communication between faces, with the internet acting as the newest form of an interface. 

Society without the internet today is unimaginable. This class as does many others uses the internet for assignments and class information. The internet has become so common and popular, that we use the internet for most of our information and means of communication. Email has changed the way people interact with one another and has expedited the transfer of data from one user to another. Not only has the internet allowed for better communication between people, but it has also allowed for information previously difficult to access, available with the click of a mouse. The internet has saved hours of time for people both trying to deliver and gathering information. The internet may not be perfected yet, but it has revolutionized the way people interact with each other and the way which data is accessed. The internet continues to change and offer more to people, and I cannot wait to learn what the internet has in store for the future and how it will continue to shape our culture. 

-Lauren Lopez-Ibanez 

At the 1938 New York World Fair, the television was introduced to the public. There were many mixed feelings about this new media source and how it would fit into the lives of people. It was thought that the television would only be attractive to higher income groups, and serve as a luxury for other working classes. Even with these ideas surrounding this new media,  Americans quickly adapted to the television, with production rates soaring over other countries. Like radio, television was dominated by companies as another monopoly which information was controlled through.  During the Age of the Television, radio licenses began to drop, along with cinema attendance, the television was being welcomed into homes and allowed people the comfort of staying at home and watching the news or viewing shows and movies. In the televisions first years, there were not as many programs available as the radio, and but the television emphasized entertainment, where as the radio had been more centrally focused on news broadcasting. As talked about in the reading many people tuned in to see the Queen's Coronation, before television people would only be able to read or hear about this event, but due to television thousands of people were able to witness it.  The television helped to link places together and provide more information to audiences. 

Ethical issues arose with the television as well. People fought over how positive the television was, and standards were set for language, decency, and violence. Educational programs were developed for children and there were many debates over how to protect children for viewing adult programs. Different countries, societies, and regions adapted different methods to protect children and establish codes and broadcasts. Each country has developed different roles and uses for television over the years, and there is no one standard for televisions problems for everyone. There are still constant battles over what is appropriate and what limits should be set.

Even though television was so to start, it has revolutionized all societies today. Through the television people can witness things and historical events, without having to be where they are occurring. As a new media it adapted characteristics of older media, especially the radio , incorporating these elements, and then refining them to fit it better. As we have discussed in class over the past weeks, old media plays a key role in the development of new, and although some may seem better the older forms are not forgotten or used any longer. The printing press will forever play an integral part in history, as will the radio, and TV, only helping to pave the road to newer media that connects people and places more efficiently and portably. 

Lauren Lopez-Ibanez 

Starting with the radio, Briggs and Burke focus on the "sound broadcasting" before entering the realm of television broadcasting to develop the similar foundations of both, and the same institutions which in the beginning were a part of both forms of broadcasting. The radio was brought into great light during the years of war during the earlier part of the twentieth century. The radio was used to relay information to listeners, and make them feel like they were experiencing the events happening around the world. Ed Murrow and Orson Wells are to well known radio announcers for their delivery of information and stories. During the WWII, the radio was used to speak "the truth", and as Briggs and Burke state a "war of words" erupted during the 30's and 40's. Nazis used the radio to control what information was delivered to people. President Roosevelt used the radio for "fireside chats" and other broadcasts to make Americans feel connected to the President and have more understanding of what was happening. 

The radio was different from the newspaper press in many different aspects. There were not as many constraints on when and what was able to be published, and the radio was a more direct and more fast paced. We can see how each new media of its time delivered information more quickly and directly to audiences. The radio played a very important role in how people got information and where they would turn to for both information and education. The radio had these two aspects. The British government tried to enforce a day of light programming, but in the US and other countries the networks controlled the broadcasts not the government.  The article further discusses Reith, General Manager of the British Broadcasting Corporation. Reith broke down the British standard for broadcasting, he did not view it solely for information, education, and entertainment, he shaped a monopoly. Reith saw that broadcasting should not only be for what people wanted, but hoped to reach many people and deliver high standards for broadcasting. 

The key difference in international radio broadcasting was the approach to advertising. The British financed it from license fees, where the US took a different approach of financing from advertising. The US used a system to rate programs and if certain programs did not appeal to enough listeners, they would be cut from the air and replaced by something new. Advertisements and programs began to have target groups, which can still be found in marketing in many areas of media.  Networks place shows at different times with different advertising to best match those tuning in. This idea of target group arose during the rise of broadcasting. Though Britain and the US were the first two major broadcasting countries, many other countries began to use the radio as a source of information and entertainment. Each country differs based on government control and individual uses, but the basis for them all stays consistent. 

Looking at how the radio and broadcasting was a new media shows how when a new technology emerges it takes time to refine, and find the best way to use it. We are still learning new things about the internet, and new laws and regulations are being developed for the protection of people and information. Just as the radio was not perfect, and underwent various forms of control, now it is at a stable place and people understand its different purposes. The Internet is still in those stages as a newer media form. Recently, the ever popular Facebook announced that they were going to hold the right to sell other peoples information, even once users may not hold an account. These types of problems are arising and we as society are trying to find the best comprises to efficiently and effectively use this new media source.  New media serves for wonderful achievements, namely to keep people more connected, and better informed on news and information. Radio broadcasting is seen as one of those medias that accomplished those things. 

Lauren Lopez-Ibanez  

In the article "Printing and the Rapture of Classification" by Hobart and Schiffman opens with the story of Michel de Montaigne, a man of the parliament of Bordeaux. During his retirement, Montaigne turned the tower of his chateau into a library, where he spent twenty years reading the works of great philosophers and concluding that many of the works he read held contradicting ideas. He began to write his own ideas about these contradicting ones, and they were complied to be known as the Essays. Hobart and Schiffman raise the question of whether or not Essays would exist if it were not for the introduction of the printing press only a century earlier. The printing press opened the world to many new ideas and also helped to change the "intellectual landscape". It helped to secure the history of societies, as well as promote development in many science fields, along with being a major contributor in the religious reformations. Most importantly printing gave people access to books and information that was not previously available, the mass production of works exposed the contradictions to everyone.

The medieval advances of changing the format from papyrus scrolls to codex, or more commonly as we know, book format. This made interpreting text and finding passages within books far more easier to navigate than the large scrolls, which were a tedious process. Codex was also more cost efficient production wise, and allowed for books to be at lower prices. Along with a smoother format to manuscripts, came different organizations of books and manuscripts. Montaigne was not the only one to take notice to the contradictions in books, and many people began to place their own opinions and interpretations to manuscripts. This process was known as gloss, students would add their own commentary to readings, and they would be passed down through university systems, and each student would write in their own thoughts to the works. Summa, or summary, was another form of organization used to differentiate between opinion and truth or fact. The summa included a range of issues, that were each grouped with contrasting texts, this allowed for students to be presented with the founding information of each issue and let students draw conclusions from it. 

I did not realize the impact and changes that were brought with the printing press. This was once a new media with an impact similar to the internet for today's society. The codex form has always been a format that I have used, but when imagining how tedious it would be to have to go through numerous scrolls to find information rather than flip to a page in a book, would make the learning process even more intricate than it already is. Just like the internet has allowed people access to a grand span of information, so did printing, it opened up a world of information that was once only available to the elite. The internet has changed how our world operates, and similarly printing had the same impact when it was first introduced. This once "new media" of printing parallels the "new media" of the internet and other technology that is shaping how societies interact and share information between each other. 

Lauren Lopez-Ibanez 

Hayles explores the idea of virtuality in her chapter "The Condition of Virtuality". She gives the definition of virtuality as "the cultural perception that material objects are interpenetrated by information patterns" (p. 69). Information and materiality are the two main concepts which contribute to virtuality and how they are unified yet separable. Adding to the better understanding of how virtuality was derived and the separation of information and its material form, she discusses how World War II helped the shape the idea of virtuality, and how information was sent during the war through codes and signals. There were only patterns of information sent, there is no actual message in the signals, we interpret them to hold certain meanings. Another example that Hayles used to form the concept of virtuality was the human body and genetics, the body is created from the genes, but genes are not created by the same body which it is a part of. She draws a parallel between this example and the relationship between information and material form. Information is available in various forms and but in the material form of information cannot be replicate itself. Aspects of these two examples of the information and its materiality can be seen in computers and technology today and how they transfer information. This leads back to Manovich's interfaces discussion, interfaces help to create the messages that we receive from the signals that are constantly been sent. Interfaces become the materiality of lots of our information in today's technology society.

The idea of how information and materiality are linked yet divisible is very interesting. We send "messages" through our computers and cell phones all day long, and typically think that we are sending those messages directly. When really we are not sending the actual message we are sending signals that are intercepted through various interfaces which then interpret and relay the message to the user. I am so used to this system that I rarely stop to think how it is actually sent and how the information is being transmitted from different sources, but the concept of virtuality is very present in our everyday lives. 

Lauren Lopez-Ibanez 

In this article Manovich is exploring the idea of augmented spaces. These spaces are referred as public areas in which people are able to access information wirelessly. Manovich derived augmented spaces from the previous concept of augmented reality and notes that this augmented space is an idea and cultural and aesthetic practice not a technology. Manovich more closely breaks down this concept by creating three main areas; video surveillance, cellspace technology, and computer video displays. Each one of these areas turn the physical space into data space and connect both of them together. Augmented space is similar to Kellerman's discussion of diminishing space between people, they both are showing how access through wireless technology is always avaiable in large public areas, such as large shopping centers and big cities. Augmented space is monitored space due to the overlaying of physical space with dynamic data.

Due to this overlaying of physical space and dynamic data, there are new aspects to the development of both physical space and the wireless communications. Augmented as an idea looks at augmented space as a problem. Manovich uses the example of architecture and how architects now have to incorporate how buildings are going to use and have virtual layers. The virtual layers have become key parts in buildings and have to be considered by the physical structure. Cellspace looks at how we make augmented space 3-D, how we are being able to receive data from everywhere connecting data from one place to all other places at the same time. Computer video displays and monitoring have allowed people to actively engage in the virtual reality and make physical space not as important. We are able to see things through computers and displays that may not be happening around us, but we are able to feel like we are a part of it. 

As we discussed in class, the internet was first created without images, today we would not know what to make of an internet without images. These images and information about places and things allow users to feel that they are part of places and see things that they may never have another way to see such places or things. As for augmented space, wireless allows us to access the internet from cell phones, laptops not connected to a line, ipods, PDA's, and many other technologies. GPS systems relay the same information to thousands of users at the same time without any delay. All of these technology systems link our communities closer together and make data of any sort more easily accessible to anyone with some sort of these devices. 

Kellerman's discussion of technologies is focused on the technologies of personal mobilities, looking both and self-operated and virtual spatial mobilities. Breaking this focus into three main discussion points, Kellerman begins with personal mobility technologies. Personal mobility technologies are divided into transportation technologies and communication technologies, these two subdivisions both have aided the speed at which people can reach one another.  In the early part of the twentieth century is when some of the most important transportation technologies were developed, including the automobile, trains, and other modes of transportation. These technologies were able to enhance the physical mobility of people, making it easier for people to travel and change locations quickly. The latter part of the century aided what is known as the virtual mobility of people, such as the telephone and then later the internet, both which have allowed for information to be transmitted almost immediately between people who are not in the same relative space. The development and adaptation of all different technologies took time, but have drastically changed how people are able to interact with one another, and at what speed they are able to communicate.

The second part of Kellerman's discussion deals with the socio-spatial aspects of the technologies previously discussed. Walking is the oldest form of human mobility, and as Kellerman states, walking is "an initial step towards citizenship", because it engages in both social and spatial microcosm. He also states that walking activities have important aspects of democratic and public life, including, processions and demonstrations. Walking also involves having a plan of where you are going, and strategic planning on your destination. Adversely, automobiles have become a status symbol, but also allows for more spatial use, allowing people not to have to be tightly confined in order to interact with each other. 

Lastly, Kellerman looks at the use of technologies and compares their uses and substitutions of each other.  Comparing the relationship between the car and telephone, internet and cars, and wireless communication and mobility media, Kellerman draws on a conclusion that these technologies complement one another, and can also lead to saving trips which may make another through the saving of time. All of these technologies have made it possible for people to accomplish more in a day through saving time by the use of technology.

Thinking on this last thought, I realize how true this statement Kellerman makes about through saving one trip we generate another. Because today, thanks to all the wonderful improvements of technology, I am able to do so many more things in a day, where as if each time I needed to communicate with someone I would have to walk to find them and the continue this tedious process throughout the day. Within a matter of minutes I am able to communicate and transfer information to numerous people via wireless phones, computers, e mail, and texting. Going back to Manovich each day I use many interfaces to make my accessibility to people so much faster than it was in the beginning of the century. We really do move faster today, because we have so many different ways to stay in tune with other people.

-Lauren Lopez-Ibanez  

Opening with his tour of Razorfish Studios, Manovich begins to reveal what he is about to describe about databases. He notes on the physical organization of the studio and how they represent the key themes of computers. Manovich then begins to discuss the two forms of collecting data. The first is a database, which can store any kind of data including paper data to digital data. The second form is the virtual interactive 3D space, consisting of computer animation, video games, and human-computer interfaces. He compares old forms of databases to computer databases, which contain the same concepts, but computer databases are easier and quicker to access, as well as sort and re-organize information. Computer databases have began to represent out cultural and individual "cultural memory", encompassing most of the information that people seek and use frequently.

Manovich continues on discussing databases and how frequently they are used in new media and their forms commonly seen. He compares them to the virtual space and how each serve as different ways of delivering data to users. Manovich shows this contrast by using the example of literary and cinematic narrative; databases help to provide an interface to data, while virtual space engages users in what they are experiencing, like books and film. Databases are the dominant form of new media, they range from encyclopedias, to CR-ROMS, and web pages. Each one of these new forms of media are a compilation of data for users to access at their own will. This form of new media has made the availability of data more wide spread and easier for all types of individuals to understand and access. The internet contains a variety of search engines, which are large databases that allow people to enter information and it be found in various other databases. Computer databases have allowed for many users to connect, and for databases grow larger through the help of one another.

When reading about the different forms of databases I realize just how many I access each day. I use numerous browsers, and am constantly searching things on the internet. Everything is virtually a click away, some of the information that people are looking for would have taken lots of time and energy to go find the differnent sources through various databases. But now with computer databases it is so efficient to find all kinds of information and connect to places that used to be unthinkable. I am sure that most of the class is on facebook, which is a huge database of people who login in each day to search friends or keep in touch. Databases are an important new media that is so important to keeping information and allowing others to find information. 

-Lauren Lopez-Ibanez 

Manovich opens with the comparison of the 1982 Blade Runner film to the 1984 release of Macintosh, Apples new computer that introduced the GUI, which has been an influential release in new media technology.  Blade Runner introduced modernized views of how computers and decay. Similar, Apple's new Macintosh advanced into a new system where GUI, only the GUI disproves the idea of decay and allows that once something has been saved and placed in an interface it is extremely hard to erase permanently, and will never decay or be erased unless manually done by a human user. The GUI was first a system of rectangular boxes in which text could be written and transmitted.  This same style was used with the palm pilots, navigation systems, and cell phones. This marked a turning point in new media, which Manovich notes that Internet and its popularity allowed for all cultures to merge and for computers not to be limited just to one particular part. As human interaction with computer systems grew interfaces became adjustable to human user preferences. Manovich also describes the interaction between human users and computers as HUI, described as how humans use computers. 

In Cultural Interfaces, Manovich unfolds more of the meaning of HUI and how computers have become used for both work and leisure. HUI is physical input but also consists of external output, including monitors, a mouse, and keyboards. Manovich boils interfacing down to how computers allow human users to interact with computers, and how in present day society we are no longer just interacting with a computer but through interfaces we are interacting with society and culture. Anything and everything which has become digitized has become a product of interface and how we have learned to communicate and transmit information to others. Manovich also talks of the three cultural forms, cinema, the printed word, and a general purpose HUI. He shows how there particular dominance in society can all be linked together, and similar aspects are seen throughout in each different form. It proves Manovich's idea discussed in his first article about how old media is used as a reference to new media, and how it's continuos advances are encourage by that of old media. 

While reading this chapter of Manovich, I begin to understand the different importance of small features, such as web browsers, and different screen boxes, which I never thought of as new media, nor did I realize how society was without such things. Communication has become far more easier in the last few decades due to the contribution of interfaces. My families first computer was a massive box that had limited applications and was not nearly used as much as I rely on my computer today. When we got a newer computer my siblings and I thought that it was great that each family member could have their own modified user. These were our own interfaces on the computer that we personalized to fit each of our different taste and separate our different games and documents. Interfaces are a large part of modernized technology that I feel many people, including myself tend to overlook as important. Espcially among my generations and the ones following mine, we have always been introduced to personalized interfaces which are interchangeable and easy to access. Life with out computers would result in a shut down of society, our dependence on them has become astronomical, and Manovich helps to point out the finer details, making modern technology praised, and better understood by generations who did not watch it emerge.  

-Lauren Lopez-Ibanez