COM257: Media History and Theory

In Tom Farley’s article “Mobile Telephone History” he documents the history of the development of the mobile telephone from a mere idea that was not yet possible due to a lack of infrastructure to the innovation of the necessary components (the transistor originally designed for calculators) to GSM and CDMA cellular phones. He also documents the “race” for mobile technology and the Federal Communications Commission’s role in restricting the development of American mobile technologies, highlighting the speed at which countries such as Sweden (advancing with less governmental restriction) and Japan (focusing on production and quality control) were able to advance continuing to reiterate how American cellular companies were striving to advance their technology and learning how to compete with countries such as Japan that had much higher standards for quality.

The author begins by defining a mobile telephone as a “wireless device which connects to the public switched telephone network and is offered to the general public by a common carrier or public utility”. He continues to define mobile history “not just [as] a study of the telephone [or] the handset itself, but a look at the wireless system it is connected to”(1). Farley notes that after WWII, the US (although slowly) pushed for the development of mobile technology for three reasons: consumer demand, the existence of research facilities, and manufacturing capability. However, despite these three elements, as Farley documents, the FCC and the United State’s inability to supply the demand of consumers due to limited and simplistic network infrastructure consistently held back the development of mobile technology. Farley explains the early progression of the mobile telephone from the first discussion in 1947 where it was realized that although the components of a mobile telephone existed-a network was needed in order to provide the actual service, the confines of the automobile, the expansion of automatic dialing (removal of the operator), and the “unveiling of the transistor” where the bulky vacuum tubes were now eliminated and mobile telephones could now actually be imagined as “mobile”! The competition between the US and Sweden and Japan to create the first cellular phone expanded as each country. The first commercial cellular radio system did not become operational until 1969 when there could be frequency reuse using a limited number of channels (economy of use) on the metro liner. This year marked the end of the “tube” and although large, telephones were now adapted into briefcase phones, and with the invention of the transistor by Texas Instruments, the rivalry for the first cellular phone began between the two US companies AT&T and Motorola; nevertheless, the FCC delayed their progress. The next pivotal year, according to Farley was 1978 when the AMPS began operating in New Jersey and New York with the help of Oki Electric. Finally this demonstrated that a larger scale mobile telephone cellular system could work, just as was noted in our discussion of the Internet, satellite service for mobile telephones got their start from the military (INMARSAT), which was “originally designed for ships at sea”.  MARISAT (the first mobile comm. satellite service began in 1976 but was problematic as there were interruptions between the operator and the user. The major cellular development was in the early 1980s and was outside of the United States, in Mexico and areas around Sweden. In Europe, the continent was swept by analog cellular car phones that used a magnetic stripe (now we have a sim card) yet these phones didn’t operate on the same networks so they were “working towards a digital frame. Later, the NMT450, by far the most advanced up to this point had “600 cells and offered roaming, an important first”. The US was once again still stalled by FCC regulations due to fears of monopolies and service rate. Finally n the mid 80’s when Japan took over part of the NMT, the idea of quality control (Japan) and roaming/networks merged. Furthermore, in the US, the Bell System split apart allowing for competition and new products! In Japan, the NTT ended their monopoly mobile phones but the direction they were going to head was uncertain.

Farley continues to discuss the rise of digital technology and in service called GSM or Groupe Speciale Mobile or what we now call Global System for Mobile Communications.  The US wanted a dual system so that they would not have to cut off analog users, Qualcomm is credited with the first prototype for the CDMA telephone; however by the 1990s a digital standard IS-54 was adopted converting any analog channels to digital (numerical representation). GSM offered many things it allowed for privacy, access, and speed, and by “2004 it was announced that GSM had one billion customers” in Europe, Finally in between 1994 and 1997 the FCC “auctioned off blocks of frequencies” and GSM and CDMA spread.
When “the communicator” was released by Nokia, (a precursor to all our slide-out multi function mini personal computers”) I doubt that anyone had any idea what was going to come. The use was not up to par with the definition of a mobile phone as it was not handling voice nearly as well as it handled data (something still problematic with many handheld blackberries etc.). Cingular was the first carrier of UMTS and according to this article “are very expensive”. It is interesting because this article was written in 2005 and the “mobile phones” we use today are far beyond the definition of what Farley defines at the beginning of this article. The expense of a QWERTY keyboard phone with emailing/SMS and GPS capability is not much more than a “standard” telephone and most business people and students use some sort of mini-computer/phone on a daily basis. This article demonstrates how quickly mobile telephones advanced. This is likely due to the existing infrastructure of the telegraph (explained by Kellerman) and also how the development of mobile technology was a global effort.

Sara Nussbacher

In Tim O’Reilly’s article, “What is Web 2.0: Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software”, he defines Web 2.0 through examples and comparisons, demonstrating that Web 2.0 is separated from Web 1.0 not only by it’s characteristics but by the role of the user.  The author first introduces a list of Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 examples; however, he explains that in order to truly understand the meaning of “Web 2.0” we must examine Web 2.0 not as a concretely bounded definition, but more in terms of the very place that it lives: the Internet: a web or network of sites that center around a “core”. O’Reilly bases his definition of “What is Web 2.0” on seven principles: “services, not software w/cost effective scalability” or in other words Google instead of Netscape, “control over unique, hard-to recreate data sources that get richer as more people use them” (database management and copyrighting data – e.g Amazon’s annotation), “trusting users as co-developers” (or users as creators), “harnessing collective intelligence” (through hyperlinking and how the web is a cooperative system- for example Amazon’s “most popular” list is created by the users and through blogging and RSS),  “leveraging the long tail through customer self service” (iTunes, Amazon), “software above the level of a single device”, and lightweight user interfaces, development models, and business models” (the simplicity of the Google Maps model that has allowed for “mashups” with different applications).

To help demonstrate the progression from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0, O’Reilly compares and contrasts Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 pioneers: “Netscape vs. Google”, “Double Click vs. Overture/AdSense”, and finally “Akami vs. BitTorrent”. In regards to Netscape and Google, the author explains the Netscape is an example of Web 1.0 as was a browser providing a market for server products. “Netscape” was the product and this product allowed for the marketing of more products that were intrinsically linked to the purchasing of the “Netscape” browser – a sort of browser monopoly. Contrastingly, Google was not designed as platform to sell products but rather as a server to users with constant improvements made on a daily basis requiring a “specialized database” where the “value of the software is proportional to the scale and dynamism of the data it helps to manage” (20).  O’Reilly points out that Google is in fact an interface as it acts as an intermediary between the “user and his or her online experience”. This approach is vastly difference than any other previous browsers.  O’Reily continues to compare DoubleClick to Overture and AdSense demonstrating that Overture and AdSense recognized the importance of both publishing and more importantly participation by users. The notion of the “long tail” whereby the power of the smaller sites can contribute just as much if not more than that of the larger sites is a key point in how collective advertising and ad-placement became user friendly. O’Reilly further emphasizes how users became the databases (their photo-databases, music lists, etc) and the web became a cooperate exchange. Web 2.0 becomes the interface and the “downloader’s become the servers”(21). (Evidence of the principle of Web 2.0 where the “long tail is leveraged” through customer service and evidence of how the Web 2.0 model harnesses the collective intelligence of the users). Finally when highlighting the differences between Akani and BitTorrent, O’Reilly’s most notable comment is BitTorrent’s approach to make each user a server. According to O’Reilly, BitTorrent exemplified a key element of Web 2.0 “the service gets better the more people use it”. As participation grows, the number/volume of files increases and the users gain increased access and more information to access. This is an example of “trusting users as co-developers”.

O’Reilly emphasizes that they key to Web 2.0 is truly its freedom for user participation. Although copyrighting and domain names become more difficult to manage, the true core of the Internet is its users. The network is grown by the tracks that are made each day through hyperlinking, blogging, and RSS. Google Map’s flexibility is particularly interesting.. The Zillo interface uses Google Maps to produce “home estimates” by creating a database of homes that are for sale, showing a map (provided through Google Maps, which is of course credited), and created a specialized database for a homebuyer or a real estate agent. The flexibility of Google Maps is what allows this “mashup” between companies to occur. Both companies can cross advertise and the user likely visits Google Maps on a separate “trip” to get a different perspective or uses a hyperlink-consequently increasing traffic and “growing the web”

Sara Nussbacher

In Janet Abbate’s article entitled “Popularizing the Internet” she examines the origins and expansion of what is now known as the Internet. The author explains how the Internet “was transformed from a research tool into a popular medium”(p.182). The author highlights the change of flow from solely a military tool to a tool used by the private sector, the development of independent networks that could operate within or outside of a larger network (if need be) and finally how the Internet became a global network (development of infrastructures) with the birth of the World Wide Web where ideologies traveled free from the restrictions of time and space.   

Abbate explains that although the technology of the Internet can be credited to the military ARPANET, it is truly a product by many authors such as the National Science Foundation (responsible for much of the early funding and research) and the work of researchers across the country and eventually the world. Abbate credits the Internet’s adaptability and one of Lev Manovich’s five principles of “new media” for the Internet’s ability to survive over twenty years of constant change – “modularity”, or how pieces of the Internet (or its earlier predecessors) could be modified and restructured without affecting the entire infrastructure and thus development of the Internet. From the time of ARPANET’s work with the NSF, Abbate demonstrates that researchers worked together to create a more accessible, speedier, and unified infrastructure.

According to the author, 1983 is a pivotal year in the development of the Internet as the “Department of Defense split ARPANET into the MILNET (military sites) and ARPANET (for civilian research sites). The splitting of the network allowed for public access to ARPANET; consequently the military did not have to worry about public accessing high security information that was originally stored on the single version ARPANET. The creation of a network specifically designed for public access is a true testament to what Abbate refers to as the Internet’s “openness”. The dystopian view of “new media” is not as apparent as it was during other periods of technological innovation such as during the development of the telegraph or “The Age of Broadcasting”. During this twenty-year period ideologies move rapidly through “packet switching” and innovators are seeking to find a way to provide easier and more convenient access to information.  Abbate highlights the exponential growth in internet access as she points out that in 1985 approx. 2000 computers had Internet access, in 1987 30,000 computers, and in 1989, 159,000 computers had Internet access (attributed to “local-area networks”). The advent of the PC brought about a shift in the American lifestyle. Similar to how the Macintosh desktop was designed in the Xerox Parc Labs to look like a stand alone desk, the “workstation” adopted in the 1980’s had the same connotation: workstation = necessity = belongs. The modularity of the Internet is again evident as we see that local area networks could be attached to different types of machines.  LAN’s allowed for universities to independently control their networks without having to report directly to the military. Abbate explains that with a vast amount of networks and lack of centralization, the Internet needed “a uniform and comprehensive system of host names and address that would allow each computer to be uniquely identified…to exchange messages…no host would be duplicated”(p.189) The database of names and addresses became stale and the notion of the ability to have instantaneous updates was accomplished by dividing the virtual space of the Internet into smaller domains. This exemplifies Kellerman’s (Technologies 2006) concept of how operation (use determining the flow determining the networks) determines the structure of the technology. The Internet needed to be manageable and for the messages to reach the correct destinations and for the Internet community to remain “unclogged” the networks had to be divided into smaller units. With the decentralized naming process (edu, gov…) a hierarchy of management was created for the virtual world; however, the freedom to create individual “lower-level” domain names allowed for creativity and innovation.

According to Abbate, the NSF worked simultaneously during this time to create a network for communication through the establishment of supercomputers spread across the country. They created a “backbone” called the NSFNET that supported the “two tiered system” of regional networks and university computers. The structure of NSF’s NSFNET was one of “an internet, not a network” as the modules operated independently at each supercomputer site but supported other sites and networks as well. The use of “packet switches” allowed for information to transfer faster and with increased accessibility.  The changeover from ARPANET to NSFNET in the Internet world was facilitated again by the Internet’s modularity. It is interesting to note that Cerf’s writes “Requiem for the ARPANET”: “Lay down the packet, now, O friend, and sleep” as in fact his work did not end; rather it evolved into something new, a key characteristic of new media. Although the Internet was no longer tied to the military, the Internet would not be what it is today without ARAPNET.

The privatization of the Internet brought about several problems: Americans were leery of the government providing goods or services, the NSF’s clause of prohibiting commercial activities (the Acceptable Use Policy) created a conflict when users were trying to understand how to “use” the Internet, and commercial networks wanted the opportunity for competition. Abbate explains that the NSF believed that by privatizing the Internet, “government subsidies” could cease; consequently, competition for customers amongst commercial network service providers would begin. The development of CIX facilitated service for commercial use. Users were charged a membership fee but not charged a “per packet” fee, so although they may not know “the physical locations of the computers to which they sent packets…or which commercial network a computer was on” the value, access and speed of the Internet increased and the Internet became a place for consumerism, research, and recreation. Abbate goes on to explain how other the PC, computer ownership increased the supply and demand for “commercial online systems, such as CompuServe, America Online, and Prodigy”. Legal issues were quick to arise in such a rapidly growing technology as people questioned patents censorship. Abbate explains that as the Internet expanded across the globe, but originated in the US, the non-linear text is in English, demonstrating that “The Internet, as a medium of instantaneous communication might overcome geographic distance, but it cannot simply erase political or social differences”(p. 212). The Internet faced several difficulties such as locating files the text only interface completed with the GUI interfaces on personal computers. The WWW became the model for entertainment and a way to create a transmittable “self”. The WWW was organized by hypertext allowed users to make “jumps” (as we learned from Aarseth) to new locations on the Internet without having to thumb through pages they did not want to visit. With the development of the “.url” computers and users now had a unique identity but so did their journey through the Internet, allowing for tracing and tracking. The advent of the WWW signified the ultimate spread of ideologies not from one to many but from many to many back and forth at a rate that we now struggle to keep up with. With applications such a twitter it is nearly impossible to keep up with the Internet. How did we ever live without it?

Sara Nussbacher.

In Epsen J. Aarseth’s article Nonlinearity and Literary Theory, he defines a nonlinear text as an “object of verbal communication…in which the words or sequence of words may differ from reading to reading because of the shape, conventions or mechanisms of the text”  (p. 762). From our discussions of interface, communication can vary greatly depending on the use of different interfaces, such as language (slang, semantics) or whether we use an interface such as a personal mobility device (telephone) to mediate our conversation. Aarseth points out that texts can be narratives (for example a book) however be nonlinear in form if the reader jumps around from non sequential pages (referencing perhaps an encyclopedia or anything where you return to a table of contents for reference). The author emphasizes the relationship between computer and print based text. Furthermore, just because new media technologies, such as the advent of hypertext utilize the nonlinear format of text, this is not to say that “old media” should be disregarded or ignored; rather, as we have discussed in class, “new media” evolves from “old media” and is a modification of older innovations. Books are never “gone”; instead, they may be published online, yet the hard copies remain in print and are used.

Aarseth continues by highlighting three of what he deems the most important components in a set of “metaphysics” that control how we understand text: “reading, writing , and stability”. These three components can be summarized, according to Aarseth as follows: “Reading”: what we read and what we infer from our reading, “writing”: The author’s intentions and the messages that are woven into an authors work (his/hers style/the work’s genre/and their culture which then promotes an ideology), and finally “stability”: Hearkening Aristotle, a text has a beginning, middle, and end that are fixed despite that different interpretations of a reader. Aarseth believes in a dualism of the text as he proposes that a text includes “a practice, structure, or ritual of use”(p. 763). This dualism demonstrates the text’s ability to be a representation of ideologies as well as a medium for social change (a key characteristic of new media).  Aarseth defines “the text” on two levels: informative and interpretable yet they are interdependent in the same ways Manovich argues that the 5 principles of new media are interdependent. According to Aarseth, the text is a “technical, historical, and social object” yet it is also something “understood and interpreted” by the reader”. This cooperative interplay is what makes text dynamic it creates the world of text (through any interface- be it the tangible book, hypertext, early artificial intelligence, or relay chats, etc). The need for the technical aspect and historical understanding is undeniable as is our ability to interpret and make meaning out of the strings of symbols that come our way through a screen, page, or mobile device. The script on the other hand is the “words and spaces” or what composes the text as it works like an algorithm (another characteristic of new media) the script is composed into text that is operationalized in the mind of the reader creating meaning.

The author continues by trying to sort out what exactly “belongs” within a text and what does not.  Does the author’s name count if it is in the byline? Do we look at that as relevant information or is it considered as part of the materiality (or container – if we think of how Hayles could look at this question). Aarseth makes an interesting argument that if we already know who the text is “by” we have preconceived notions of what the text will be about/whether we will enjoy it, and perhaps we have expectations (leading authors to use pseudonyms that carried cultural “weight” even if perhaps their writing wasn’t up to standard?) He continues to explain that when pages are missing from a book we automatically assume that there must be an original copy with the missing pages included. Our minds strive for stability – we chase after it even if it does not exist and “we prefer the imaged integrity of a metaphysical object to the stable version that we observe”. His experience viewing the movie Zardoz when the reels were out of sequence caused him to become immersed in the film. The notion that “a text or film is like a limited language in which all the parts are known but the full potential of their combinations is not”(p. 765) is a true testament to variability. The multiple combinations that the film reels could have been ordered is numerous; however, as Aarseth states this does not create a “new film” just a new version of the same film; however, I would imagine that many directors would argue to the contrary stating that each reel is placed in a particular order for a specific emotion – one reel out of sequence and you change the entire picture – imagine altering the sequences in Crash- I cannot, or even Pulp Fiction, these movies are out of sequence on purpose and putting them in any other order would destroy the nature of the film.

Aarseth argues that text should be studied as information and reiterates that although the interface through which we view a text may change (hard bound book vs. digital book) the information contained is still the same; thus privileging information over materiality. The author goes so far as to say that we cannot simplify text to what is written and what is ready but rather that the constant “ping-ponging” of ideas between the author and the reader is entirely more complex and never-ending. The author moves forward to define “typology” as the “’ways in which the various sections of a text are connected, disregarding the physical properties of the channel….”. In other words he continues to explain how text can be reduced into smaller units (letters, words, phrases/sentences). He arrives at a name for a singular unit of text called a “texton” which can be used to describe units of reading however also coins the term “scripton” to account for a sequence of “textons”. Aarseth provides a list of some traversal functions” (or ways a text can be accessed or programmed into an algorithm): Topology: (nonlinear) scriptons are not in one fixed sequence – arbitrary whether by computers/users, the text – variability), dynamics (static vs. dynamic text), derminability (if time passes and scriptons appear without prompting the text is transient, if no scriptons appear it is not transient. – Real time appearance of scriptons is “synchronous”), maneuverability (relates to access-random vs. standard/arbitrary vs. completely controlled – in regards to hypertext). When Aarseth discusses hypertext he makes a critical statements as he points out that that the “main feature of hypertext is the jump” this notion parallels indexing and the table of contents in what we consider “old media” showing that “new media” is a sort of “renovation” of the past. In Afternoon, although there was hypertext, it does not allow for the user to randomly “jump” and in a way it is a forced narrative” or forced way of hyper linking that reverts backwards from the forward thinking of hypertext.

Aarseth continues to discuss Eliza and Adventure. The algorithms that are programmed into these models are what causes him to feel lost although he does not refer to them directly as pre-programmed in the same way that we discussed. He however remarks that upon leaving these programs the user feels disconnected or as if there is unfinished business. As Aarseth discusses Adventure and MUD he remarks that the experience does leave the user with different experiences. While Adventure lacks the rising and falling action that gives the user the needed catharsis that most literature provides (again referring to the beg/middle/end of Aristotelian format), Adventure also is similar to a book in that it requires the user to completely imagine the scenery/objects just like a novel would. There is “reason to argue” as he says if a book says “pink elephants” because it says just that “pink elephants”. However, in MUDs, the users see swords or other elements so there is a provided image, the user is experiencing a middle ground: Some imagined, some provided; in a way the user is in limbo. Nevertheless, both the participants of Adventure and MUDs are subject to algorithms (Manovich, What is New Media, 2001).

I am curious if Aarseth wrote this article in a deliberate nonlinear form mimicking his out of sequence viewing of John Boorman's Zardoz? The entire article seems to mock the style of writing as an explanation of a topic that is rather complex and I am wondering if the point is to randomize his thought process to demonstrate that when you are presenting a text and do not know the author (so the genre, style, and meaning/cultural history are not already swirling in your mind) you are left with a similar 1,3,5,6,2,8,7 sort of feeling (like the film clips. In this type of text when sorting out a summary it would seem imperative to explain the components of text and his arguments in a more sequential manner – although he was likely not assuming we would need to write about it…

Sara Nussbacher

Briggs and Burke begin this section by explaining that television was not immediately accepted as a new medium of communication as it arrived during the depression. Radio and cinema dominated the communication industries and the television was not viewed as a new wave of communication; rather, it was presented at the New York World’s Fair as an “invention” rather than a technological advancement to be quickly adopted into the homes of American families. The Second World War created a lag time before the television exploded onto the communication scene; however, the freezing of channels and the assumption that only affluent members of society would be able to enjoy the television did stop the rapid production and adoption of television: “…the production of television sets rose remarkably from 1780,000 to around 15 million between 1947 and 1952 and in the latter year there were more than 20 million sets in use. More than one third of the population possessed one…”(p.189).  The boom of TV resulted in a dramatic drop in cinema attendance (as we can see the television never replaced the cinema). Television shows in the United States were geared towards entertainment and had distinct categories such as game shows (Beat the Clock) and I Love Lucy.  On the other hand the BBC seemed to keep a more dystopian view of the television even during the post-war era and used the medium as way to give the masses a view into the world of the British elite by broadcasting “Queen Elizabeth’s Coronation”. This Broadcast reflects the “high moral code” that was held in their radio broadcasts as well the ideology that permeated the BBC.

The authors continue to explain how the innovation of magnetic videotape allowed for the broadcasting of television programming “at any time and in any place”. This innovation allowed for increased access and it is reminiscent of the compression of time as no longer were broadcasters bound by real time reporting; instead, they could replay broadcasts and recordings at a time when they new the market would be larger. This would increase the target audience, consequently increasing the advertising revenue and ratings. The American market was dominated by Furthermore Briggs and Burke comment on how Britain’s adoption rate although higher than the majority of other countries in the world, was slower than the US and dominated by the general population.

Briggs and Burke explain that the BBC’s monopoly over ideology was challenged “because ‘it set out unashamedly to make people think, and from that it was only a short step to telling them what to think”. The authors continue to highlight the BBC’s dependence on licensing fees. The threat against the BBC’s control over the dissemination of information represented the power of the television as a medium in British society. Nevertheless, the BBC could not let go over control even through advertising revenue. They kept a firm grip on the amount of time and limited the content allowed for advertisements during commercial programming. Viewing American television as a negative model, they used their power to ensure that the “commercial breaks” would be used to advertise the BBC even more than it would outside products.
The authors explain the great differences between Britain and American Television, as they had to look outside themselves after their markets had reached “saturation”. The US was quick to move through to Cuba, Mexico, and Canada, and the United States led in the ability to reach through to other countries and expand its market (for example the telenovela- the Latina American soap opera). The authors also mention the multi-choice ending stories in Japan that are reminiscent of Myst and the other video games where the narrative is not pre-determined. The development of programming was highly dependent on the willingness of countries to disenfranchise monopolies and allow for “autonomous organizations” throughout Europe and other countries. The conflict between free speech and governmental power was especially volatile in developing countries such as Thailand where national policy was placed at the forefront.
The section “comment and research” explains how in America the television was viewed in a substandard form of social commentary, not in the same “dystopian form”; but as “chewing gum” according to Frank Lloyd Wright. This could be where the idea of the “boob tube” came in to play as television changed ideologies demonstrated how it is new media. As children began to imitate what was projected on screen, the power of this new media resonated deeply within American culture and led to ratings systems such as the MPAA, the V-CHIP and even earlier the development of education children’s programming such as Sesame Street. Sesame Street is a prime example of a response to new media and how society responded to a fear of the ramifications of new media by trying to create a way to control what children where watching (similar to how the BBC did much earlier in television history). With the advent of television came the study of media and how society responded (through opinion polls and eventually Ferment in the Field). Scholars in Britain were using television to look at the world as well, asking questions and using television to ensure that they were seen and heard during times of political conflict. The battle remained to figure out how to manage education vs. entertainment. As networks wanted to secure ratings and satisfy their audience, channels were created devoted to religion, education and entertainment. Information became a key element in television (again) and although shows like Dallas produced high ratings in America it was recognized that information was highly desire. Just as the BBC televised coronation of the queen decades before, so too did Americans become an “information society” by watching the first moon landing.

Sara Nussbacher

Briggs and Burke: Age of Broadcasting

In the section "Age of Broadcasting”, Briggs and Burke discuss the institutions of broadcasting in the United States (NBC and CBS) and in Britain (the BBC) and the “trinity of entertainment, education and information” that it offered (p.187). The authors comment that each of these institutions are critical to media history as they also “usher[ed] in the aged of television too”(173). The article compares and contrasts the development and uses of radio between the United States and Britain during times of war and peace as well as how advertising revenue structured the development of radio in these countries. Before the war, the “Variety” (or radio news) was the most popular radio broadcast, while in the U.S. entertainment shows ran throughout war and peace. Hitler’s use of broadcasting is compared to a microphone as he used it to rally his followers outdoors, while on the other hand, FDR used the radio for “fireside chats” to connect which households on a personal level.

Briggs and Burke discuss the development of the British Broadcasting System and Reith, who was the General Manager of the BBC, believed that the management of broadcasting needed to be in the control of the broadcasters rather than the government or business. Moreover the authors highlight Reith’s mission as he wanted to bring morals and knowledge into the home and believed that using the radio as merely entertainment device would be “to prostitute it”(paralleling the “dystopian reaction mentioned in Carey’s article). The BBC achieved their dominance by a monopoly of radio broadcasting controlling the airwaves. This structure differs with the American development and use of radio for entertainment was a large component of broadcasting. Furthermore although Britain used licensing fees, American radio’s advertising revenues determined whether a broadcast would survive the airwaves.

The authors highlight the division of labor within the broadcasting industry ranging from the producers to the celebrities and then to the salesmen. The United States institutions had more obvious ratings systems, specifically the Nielsen Company, which was later used (and still is) to measure television viewing.  The expansion of the BBC’s programming took place in part in response to “pirates”. To combat the “cluster of pirate stations…mainly pop music” the BBC created a new radio station that had similar music and they even hired some of the producers of the original pirate stations. This piece of history sounds very much like if Napster were to hire “illegal downloaders” to help manage their site. With the technology of the mobile radio and the invention of the transistor (demonstrating how this piece of supposedly old media is in fact “new” as this piece of technology is used in the “miniaturization” of laptops p. 184) broadcasts could be heard on the go. Not only were broadcasts mobile, but so were advertisements, such as the “Palmolive Hour”. Briggs and Burke emphasize this point: “…[the radio] was a ‘ good companion’, consoling as well as entertaining…informing and educating...”(p.187).

This article immediately reminded me of Changeling, which was set in late 1920s and early 1930s Los Angeles. The main character, Christine, seeks our the help of a Presbyterian minister who uses his evening hour-long radio show to defame the LAPD and is able to “enter” the homes of all the listeners through his evening broadcasts and generate enough attention that he rallies supporters to march at the courthouse.


- Sara Nussbacher

In J. Carey’s article Technology and Ideology: The Case of the Telegraph, the author highlights how while this form of technology may be considered “old media” is in fact “new media” as it has brought about immense cultural and societal change. Furthermore, Carey emphasizes that the telegraph was the first technological innovation that “permitted…the effective separation of communication from transportation” thus increasing speed and access to information (p 203).
Carey begins by discussing the four major ways that the telegraph influenced society. First, the telegraph combined with the simultaneous development of the railroad created the necessary infrastructure (as discussed by Kellerman) that allowed for the “management of complex enterprises [and the] great ‘telegraph war’” (p. 202). Second, Carey points out that the telegraph was the first product of the electrical commodities industry and the first innovation that addressed efficient in communication through transcoding (a key element of new media as discussed by Lev Manovich in What is New Media?, 2001). Carey continues to discuss that the telegraph changed language- thus changing society- (another characteristic of new media), and further exemplifying Kellerman’s model of the structure of personal mobility devices where use influences flow which in turn influences networks; subsequently influencing operation (in this case the telegraph’s signal) and then to structure (content ? logic ? physical infrastructure), and finally development (adoption ? standardization). Finally and most central to the discussion is how the telegraph, although a communication technology, did not “displace patterns of connection formed by natural geography…it permitted for the first time the effective separation of communication from the constraints of geography”(203-204). This can be compared to the Kellerman’s idea that virtual mobility technologies (such as the telegraph) result in a “death of distance”.

Carey continues to discuss the effect of the telegraph on journalism as the “wire service demanded a new form of language” eliminating the need for first person accounts of stories and details that previously were incorporated in print news- a result of price overtaking content. Furthermore, the telegraph proved to be a control mechanism for previously existing innovations such as the railroad. One of the most profound effects, highlighted by Carey is the decline of arbitrage (although some retractions are made). With the development of the telegraph, geography became passive and the telegraph “even[ed] out markets in space” eliminating competition between towns where a seller previously rushed to a different town and sell at a higher price. Commodity trading moved from trading between “places to trading between times,” reiterating a “death of distance.

The author discusses the three consequences of “moving commodities out of space and into time”: Markets changed and became “everywhere and every time markets”, no longer dependent on local supply and demand, time was now sold against price, and finally standardization began with the “grading” of products. Casey remarks that they commodity system required that “information move independently and faster than products” paralleling Hayles’ discussion of information vs. materiality. In this case; however, information is indeed privileged over materiality as the receipt is separated from the commodity and not representative of the product.  The author concludes by returning to a discussing of standardization when examining time zones. We can see that use (as seen by television corporations) seems to dominate the final infrastructure and thus the development of our current time zones. Carey credits the telegraph for this innovation that has overcome railroad time.
- Sara Nussbacher

In Hobart and Schiffman’s article entitled “Printing and the Rupture of Classification”, they begin by immersing the reader into the mind of Michel de Montaigne. The authors describe how through the depths of great tragedy, Montaigne wrote in what we would now describe as a stream of consciousness, documenting his grief, a diverse compilation called the Essays that would be “hard to imagine… before the full flowering of printing” (Hobart & Schiffman, p. 88).

The authors begin by discussing the antecedents to printing: “codex”, “gloss” and “summae”. The “codex” format which was facilitated by the substitution of parchment from papyrus, allowing for less expensive reproductions in the Middle Ages. With this substitution came the ability to create books formats that were more manageable and allowed for access, a key element in the reproduction of text. The comparison that the authors make in regards to scrolling through yards of papyrus volumes vs. the ability to “flip from page to page” is reminiscent of how the Internet has changed our ability to view newspapers. It used to be that when visiting the library, you would have to check out microfiche and scroll through rolls of film to find an article, panning up and down and side to side” with no ability to flip through pages (a laborious task to say the least). The authors then move on to discuss “gloss” as it allowed for incorporating “contradictory information”: certainly an idea that had been repressed throughout earlier history when text was disseminated only to a privileged few, copied by appropriated persons and generally limited to the bible. As students were able to comment on text, or annotate text in the margins or between lines, questions were being raised in the middle of ideologies! This very idea challenged the idea of manuscripts, as individuals were able to challenge biblical passages. Hobart and Schiffman further discuss the summa whereby we see a transition back to order, and in fact what Manovich (2001) would describe as algorithm. The steps demonstrative inductive reasoning (moving from the general to the specific) and work in the pattern of the Aristotle: a beginning, middle, and an end: steps to follow in a sequence. The authors make a point of demonstrating that although this form of systematic storage and sequencing allowed for the dissemination of logical thought it would never permit the dissemination of the diverse and complex and “commonplace thought” that would eventually permeate the world of literature (hearkening back to Montainge’s Essays).

As Hobart and Schiffman move on to discuss “Rhetoric and the Rise of Commonplace Thought” the rhetoric comes to overtake Aristotelian logic and the notion of a simple hierarchy is far to simple to account for the expression that exists within the texts. The analogy to “bunches of flowers” that are arranged in hierarchies leading to the formatting of encyclopedias can be paralleled to hyperlinking and the branching structure of the Internet. With the dawn of printing, the amount and variety of printed books are emphasized. Access is a key consequence of the printing press as no longer did readers have to sort through endless pages but instead they had bibliographies and a table of contents. The social implications of such additions included the ability to disregard information – allowing for the ability to pick and choose reading material – comparable to how we navigate tangible textual interfaces and virtual textual space today. Furthermore the authors emphasize the ability of listing (which we can easily compare to hyperlinking). This ability to create order halting the “information overload” and allowed again for categorization and choice among readers.

The authors leave us pondering the works of Descartes. It is hard not to see traces of new media in the foundation for his logic of using “symbolic logic to supplement natural language” when the goal is in fact organization. Once again, we see a return to a notion of algorithmic steps to attack a sea of knowledge, or as we have learned, code. The way that we deal with the immense amounts of literature, text, and ideology that is created on a daily basis is in face through a mathematical methodology so that we can attempt to manage what is in fact a daily information overload.

-Sara Nussbacher

Katherine Halyes’ article entitled “The Condition of Virtuality” centers around the idea that “material objects are interpenetrated with informational patterns”(p.94). The duality of information and materiality is explored extensively by Halyes but truly seems to underscore one main point about how we experience the world: information and materiality operate in unison. This notion that information cannot be separated from duality is represented by a variety of metaphors ranging from genetics and human biology to how humans feel a connection with virtual writing that renders them feeling connected to “container” (which in this case is the computer) of their words.

Just as we discussed in class regarding Manovich’s explanation of the interdependent relationship of interfaces and databases, so too do we see the relationship between information and materiality. We can draw parallels between information to database and materiality to the interface. If information is the code or the data that exists, it can be accessed through it’s container or interface. If an interface is constructed in a certain manner, the way that the code or material is understood will be completely different. The connection is intentional and necessary. This idea is also again emphasized through her discussion of the virtual video game s MYST whereby we see how pages of a book (the interface) that contain text (the data or code) that are interdependent despite the fact that we may view them as separate when we play the video game.  

Elements of new media are evident throughout the ideas that Hayles posits. The idea of variability, that we can access the same information in different ways is certainly apparent when examining the Dangling String exhibition at the C-Graph art show. To be able to view data flow through a material associated with anything other than computer science or databases, changes the message. It exemplifies how by constructing an interface in relationship to a database that is different from the “norm” the message is altered and information is privileged over materiality.

Sara Nussbacher

In Technologies, Kellerman examines the evolution of personal mobilities while comparing transportation technologies in terms of their development, structure and operation. Automobility, "telephony", "Internetness", and "wirelessness" are expanded upon. Kellerman begins by focusing on the most basic form of transcending physical space: Walking. He does this likely to demonstrate that walking is a language in itself, which in turn is an interaction between a “user” and their environment; thus, it is a form of interface (Manovich, The Interface, 2001). According to Kellerman, “urban walking” that combines movement through physical space, freedom, and pleasure can be compared space transcending qualities of the automobile. There is also brief mention of cycling in reference to geographic infrastructures as he once again demonstrates how “use” (within operation) determines structure and so on. He remarks that cycling and “motorinis” are found where their use is geographically necessary as the infrastructures determine the mobility of the users.

Kellerman continues to discuss how the adoption of the automobile may in fact “include a minor walking component” as the city dweller walks between cars that have shaped a new landscape, which has in turn influenced the very development of automobiles in the first place. This relationship whereby the user influences the development parallels our discussion of Manovich’s discussion of “The Forms: The Database”, specifically on how the content influences the database structure rather than the database influencing content. We see this idea repeated throughout Kellerman’s text as personal mobilities are determined by use (within operation, which dictates the content (within structure), which dictates (the adoption that in turn influences standardization thus dictating the development).

Automobility is highlighted as the most widely used vehicle for personal transcendence through physical space and consisting of three spheres: individuals, society, and space. Automotive speed and flexibility, however, are highly dependent on the efficiency of the roadway infrastructures. Kellerman highlights that the advent of the automobile brought great power, freedom, and speed; thus, comparing its influence to the Internet. The ability of users to move with out moving was truly a remarkable innovation. However, the dawn of “telephony” in tandem with the Internet is a key component to what he considers to be the most “comprehensive communication device”: Wireless communication as it combines the free flowing creating of interfaces to access databases (Manovich, The Forms: The Database), resulting in flexibility physically and virtually and creating a boundless world of criss-crossing information.

Kellerman marks three pivotal points in history: The availability to transmit information directly from personal telephones without a third party, the birth and “mass production of the automobile allowing people to travel individually or with people and goods, and finally the “two way, many-to-one, and many-to-many, access that the internet provides that transportation via any other method had never provided”(83). These three waves of technological innovation demonstrate the removal of filters within the aforementioned interfaces. No longer were users restricted to deal with an operator when making a call, no longer did they need to ride a bus and been controlled by policies and procedures that would tell them what they could or could not bring on their persons, and now with the advent of the internet free flowing ideas were going in all directions. As we discussed in class users can set up their own filters and design their own interfaces, changing the speed that they reach information (data) and also changing access to information.

Kellerman is interested in exploring how various technologies may replace or be used to substitute other technologies. This idea is relevant when thinking of how much time I spend on the computer and how little time I have to do any shopping for my family (especially during the holidays). With the advent of return shipping labels that prevent visits to the post office during the insane holiday rush, some online shopping does modify travel behavior. Additionally, when I moved to North Carolina, I left all of my furniture, except my television in Los Angeles, requiring me to purchase an entire houseful of furniture upon my arrival. I did this entirely online. In this article, Kellerman discusses the problems associated with this task. One such problem is that I to go to the stores to make sure I like the pieces (requiring retailers to make special orders and requiring me to visit the showrooms anyway) -I might as well have just ordered the items in the store.

- Sara Nussbacher

In Lev Manovich’s, The Forms: The Database, the importance of modularity (elements within new media are interdependent and can be independently manipulated) and variability (the ability for customization and the creating of different version of the same content) (What is New Media?, 2001) are elevated as he discusses the two forms of competing media: databases and narratives. As Manovich brings us into the world of storage, navigation, and narration, he makes a point to first disorient us (similar to how a user might feel in a non-hierarchical data base) by describing the free flowing unconventional interactive office space of “Razorfish studios”. He highlights that the workstation is anything but traditional pointing out that there is no “real” reception desk; thus, there is “stop and start entrance/exit point”. This description is a wonderful metaphor for the structure of non-linear “new media databases” as they allow us to access information from any point within a compilation of information.

Firstly, Manovich divides the two forms of media design into two categories: “constructing the right interface to a multimedia database” or “defining navigation through specialized representation”. In other words one form is designed around access/storage (e.g. search engines) and the other is designed to create an alternative reality (games such as Riven/Myst). Manovich emphasizes that although databases are storage devices they are not limited to the “hierarchal form”; rather, he explores the idea of CD-ROMs as a “cultural device”. He introduces us to a characteristic of “new media”: “the opposition of action and representation”. In broader terms access in databases. Manovich wants us to recognize, that the development of “interface provides us access to the underlying database”. This statement reiterates what we discussed in class, as interfaces act as “filters” so they perform a key role in mediating our actions such as clicking on a mouse or buttons on a web page to access an index of images or titles within a database of information. For example, Manovich provides an interesting example of “virtual museums” whereby the user is presented with the opportunity to explore and select where they want to go within this virtual world. The user can choose (by clicking on a (link/button) what exhibitions they would like to see, what the museum has stored within the walls of their physical space and to see a catalog of the art within the physical space of the museum. Manovich emphasizes that while databases are indeed storage devices, they are again not necessarily in the “tree like structure” so favored by the computer science definition as he emphasizes that web pages can be modified on a daily basis; begging the question how ever could a website with no actual pathway be considered a narrative with a beginning middle and an end?

While databases do not ask users to accomplish a goal, computer games often have an opening sequence that ask the user to find an object or amass a certain amount of points in order to reach the final level; hence they are “experienced as narratives”. Each piece of the program (algorithm) has a specific intention and the user must follow these sequences in order to accomplish the tasks required in order to “move on” within the game. The mutual relationship between “data structures” and “algorithms” (a mathematical step by sequence) is noted as algorithms cannot exist without data structures and vice versa. Manovich explains how we have moved past favoring the linear form of narrative that was once favored in cinema whereby frames of a movie were shot in continuous motion. With the advancement of editing and other computer technology we are able to splice digital video rearranging the entire sequence of events, change the shadows within the scenes; thus creating a database “of separate layers” that can be seen as a database and a narrative of sorts. Manovich explains that the favored narrative form of the cinema (that allowed for only one camera and no editing) as we saw in class prior to the ability to edit film reels, changed dramatically allowing the reversal of the “syntagmagic dimension” (or sequential linking of events) with the “paradigmatic or imagined in the creators mind”. However, in “new media” there is a “reversal”: The database is allowed to become tangible while the narrative is an imagined in our minds (which I argue are our own personal database). Manovich discusses how Demitri Vertov was able to successfully combine both the narrative form and the database in his film Man with a Movie Camera as he calls his film an “orgy of cinematography”. Vertov was able to explore how the camera could operate a an “eye” but that the “footage gives way to manipulated footage” as he turned his film into “new media”: the beginnings of bringing together databases and narrative: linear stories and multiple media “effects” (what we now use on a daily basis in editing procedures) creating a database from his narrative, showing in fact that such oppositional forms could possibly be married together.

The connection that that Manovich makes to architectural space and “new media” databases is incredibly telling of how we view the navigate through non-hierarchical forms of “new media”. We use databases and interactive interfaces in ways that we often never realize. One example of this occurs in particularly in specific hotel lobbies such as those designed by Andre Balazs (The Standard Hotel in Los Angeles) and Ian Schrager (The Mondrian also in Los Angeles). These hotels are the futuristic in design and use interactive art, immersing the hotel guest into an alternative reality very similar to a video game such as interactive narrative video games. The design of the hotels include touch screens that are interactive and have databases of information behind the interfaces such where to go within the hotel to find the restaurants because the actual environment is so incredibly disorienting. In particular, the Standard Hotel, on Sunset Boulevard, has a design that throws off any hotel guest. Similarly to many restaurants, The Standard also has interactive interfaces for the hotel staff where they use touch screens for reservations accessing underlying databases of when you have last visited the restaurant (including if you are marked as a VIP). Such technology allows them to track you as a “VIP”; thus, the staff is basically indexing the guests in a database on a moment-to-moment basis. Moreover, ironically in games, such as Myst or Riven, I recall my stepbrother keeping a written log of just about every action (written composite of algorithmic actions) that he performed to ensure that he knew what to do in case he became lost within the game. Each time he would login to the game, he would have to refer back to his written journal to remember where he left off and the clues that he had retrieved.

I am curious to see how this evolution will continue as we see cinematic creations in formats such as IMAX where the cinema is now a virtual experience. Watching The Dark Night on IMAX begs the question, how long will it take for cinematographers to make movies interactive to the point where we can modify our experience (similar to the “adventure books” we discussed in class, changing our perspective our even the outcome of the movie? We already know that producers and directors create “alternative endings” which we are sometimes even privy to view-will we have the option to select them from the databases to change our viewing experience?

    In the second chapter of The Language of New Media entitled “The Interface”, Manovich highlights the computer interface, or the way that we as users interact with computer systems. In order to understand the complexity and heightened human role with interfaces, he uses two categories: “human-computer cultural interface” (to describe the transformation from the computer’s role as a “tool”  e.g. storage, “hypermedia…Websites, games, and cultural objects” that are distributed by a computer) and secondly, “the modern interface”, (whereby we see a four part transformation of the computer screen ranging from the static image of paintings to the real time interactive images of computer screens). The integral element of the interface (variability) is revisited: “A number of different interfaces can be created from the same data” (What is New Media? 37). In other words, we can change the way our person web pages are configured from the color, layout, and even our “NCSU My Pack Portal-My Tab layout. It is imperative to note that as discussed in the example of AL, but arguably within most interfaces, we are participating in an interactive reciprocal experience. The printing press offered the dissemination of only one ideology from one source to many receivers. On the other hand, in today’s society, we are participants in a malleable reality as are constantly creating and changing what is considered “real”. Sure, there are practical limitations on programs; however, there are also instances where there are not such obvious restrictions on our pathways (branching/“hyperlinking”)-wikipedia.com anyone? As he explains the “modern interface”, Manovich delves into the history of the interface most notably how computer systems can range from complex interactive Artificial Intelligence programs (where with much of current cinematography’s technology at the creator’s disposal creating multi-angle high resolution simulation real time games) to the very beginnings of what we might now consider to be archaic machines. However, these early inventions, specifically, SAGE’s development in 1949 of light pen rather than a mouse and the even more amazingly their development of an interactive screen, defied the limits of “display only” screen.

    One of the most crucial points made in this chapter is the merging of Manovich’s views of old, "new media", and interface. Manovich reintroduces these topics through his idea of “cultural interfaces” As we discussed in class, there are two ways of looking at “new media”: Firstly, new media can be viewed as “digital media” having to do with computer or data storage. However, this definition was discovered to be far too limiting. As we worked through our viewpoints, we realized that past media such as photography and the cinema can also be included in this definition (when it is changed by digitization, its relationship to its speed and access, and the way that it is coded (numerical representation). In “The Interface”, Manovich groups together HCI (manipulation of data), text (print), and cinema (“audio-visual narrative in 3-D space). He releases these media formats from their previous constraints and demonstrates that they all in fact interfaces and are characterized by modularity. The notion of new media emerges much more clearly as we see that the more that we are developing new technologies to explore the media that has existed previously, the more likely it will be considered “new” again.


    Even in gaming there are ways to hack or in different programs new widgets arise or are created as people find loopholes into systems that allow for modifications that were unanticipated by the creators of the original programs. If we look at a website such as wikipedia.com, we often find false information has been added that has nothing to do with the search query entered. One of the most interesting interfaces has stemmed from the iPhone. There is an interface for your iPhone that you can connect to your TiVO, so if by chance you are on a road trip and forget to program your favorite show, you can do it from the road! This goes beyond the fact that most cell phones now offer a GPS interface which once had to be installed into your vehicle (then moved into being an external plug in), and is now completely portable to the point of iPhone’s “tell me where my friends are”! This interface brings so many questions to mind: One particular law that comes to mind is “Megan’s Law”. If “friends” are depicted by the phone "gathering" in a particular place, and perhaps the phone is lost/stolen, what are the legal ramifications if a pedophile gets a hold of the device? Interfaces are exciting, innovative, and changing by the minute; however, have we caught up to our own technological advancements?

-Sara Nussbacher

In his article “What is New Media?”, Lev Manovich discusses the differences between old and new media by describing the evolution of media from the printing press and still images to the dynamic and constantly evolving world of new media that we are immersed in today. The snowball effect of computing is evident in Manovich’s account of the convergence of Babbage’s Analytical Engine and Jacquard’s weaving loom and later with what became IBM, the Tuting machine, and the cinematograph-a key element in the coding of data. This meeting of the greatest inventions led to “new media” as finally data could be stored onto a computer leading us to “new media”. Beginning with a history of the convergence of Babbage’s Analytical Engine and Jacquard’s weaving loom and later the merging of the tabulating machine and finally Manovich posits that the layman definition of new media is too broad. He clarifies that “new media” is not mass distribution or photography (as produced by the printing press and initially the very tedious process of daguerreotype). According to Manovich, “new media” is characterized by five general interdependent principles: Numerical representation (math functions or perhaps the vectors that are used in Photoshop to format objects), modularity (the notion that each media element is a separate entity and can be manipulated independently without affecting the other elements), automation (where the “user can modify or create templates or web pages”), variability (media is constantly changing rather than stagnant duplicates), and finally transcoding (where the computer interprets the media input into it’s own lingo rendering two separate layers of language). Through this breakdown Manovich emphasizes that “new media” is a not only unique and specific but a “new revolution” that we are only beginning to enter.

Many concepts in “What is New Media?” pique my interest. From my understanding of textiles, the Jacquard loom is still used to create beautiful rich textiles despite the laborious process of weaving various threads. However, when simpler patterns with less delicate thread are being used to create fabric, computers programs have been created to replicate the style of the original loom; thus reducing the price of the garment and making it more accessible to the masses (couture vs. ready to wear fashion).

One of the primary questions that are raised by Manovich is if we need the vast amount freedom that the media provides (through variability-most notably). I would argue that we are entering a cyclical cycle where we are losing our autonomy through “new media”. While it seems that we may have had less freedom when there were less media options prior to the invention of computers and especially the internet, I find that the internet, with its constant login-in and password requirements, and the automation of nearly every system of banking and bill-paying, we are become users with figurative ankle bracelets. Although the printing press was primitive and degradation was inevitable, our uses of the documents were not monitored nearly as closely as they are today. I am left to wonder-is “new media” innovation more dangerous to our autonomy than we have yet to discover?

-    I am however a bit disappointed that I never had a chance to take any of Lev Manovich’s courses while I was at UCSD.

Sara Nussbacher